Culture and School. La culture et l'école. A survey of Policies for Arts and Heritage Education across the European Union

Transcription

1 A survey/un aperçu

2 Culture and School A survey of Policies for Arts and Heritage Education across the European Union La culture et l'école Un aperçu des politiques d'enseignement artistique et du patrimoine au sein de l'union Européenne Cultuurnetwerk Nederland, Utrecht 2004

3 Acknowledgements The conference 'Culture and School, Policies for Arts and Heritage Education across the European Union' (The Hague, 8-10 September 2004) has been organised by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and Cultuurnetwerk Nederland (Netherlands Expertise Centre for Arts and Cultural Education) in collaboration with the European network of civil servants working in the area of national arts and heritage education. Contents/Table des matières Culture and School 11 The conference and this publication have been made possible by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the European Commission. Cultuurnetwerk Nederland is responsible for all matters set out in this publication. Preface Introduction Remerciements La conférence 'La culture et l'école, politiques d'enseignement artistique et du patrimoine au sein de l'union européenne' (La Haye, 8-10 septembre 2004) a été organisée par le Ministère néerlandais de l'enseignement, de la Culture et de la Science et Cultuurnetwerk Nederland (Centre néerlandais d'expertise d'éducation artistique en culturelle) en collaboration avec le réseau européen de fonctionnaires actifs dans le domaine de l'enseignement des arts et du patrimoine. La conférence et cette publication ont été rendues possibles par le Ministère de l'enseignement, de la Culture et de la Science, les Pays-Bas et la Commission européenne. Cultuurnetwerk Nederland est responsable du contenu de cette publication. 1 Culture and education in the EU countries Introduction The European Union 19 Member states and organisational structure Priorities Educational and training activities The educational programmes Political cooperation Culture and cultural programmes Arts and heritage education Copyright Piet Hagenaars and/et Marjo van Hoorn Editorial board/comité de rédaction Jan Ensink, Piet Hagenaars and/et Marjo van Hoorn,Cultuurnetwerk Nederland, Utrecht Additional information/informations complémentaires Marie-José Kommers, Max Lebouille, Judith Lieftink and/et Camiel Vingerhoets, Cultuurnetwerk Nederland, Utrecht Translation/Traduction Overtaal BV, Utrecht Cover/Couverture Koeweiden Postma, Amsterdam Cover photography/photographie en couverture look@mefotografie Jochem Jurgens, Amsterdam DTP/PAO Frank Pekaar, Utrecht Printing/Impression Libertas Grafische communicatie, Bunnik Cultuurnetwerk Nederland Ganzenmarkt 6 P.O.box 61 NL 3500 AB Utrecht T +31 (0) F +31 (0) E info@cultuurnetwerk.nl I Other organisations for education and culture in Europe 24 Unesco OECD Council of Europe ERICarts 1.4 Education in the EU countries 27 Ages and compulsory education Quality control and autonomy Pre-school education Primary education Secondary education Teachers Funding 1.5 Culture policies in the EU countries 31 Tiers of government Advice and autonomy Policy models Cooperation ISBN Arts and heritage education policies in the EU countries 32 National projects and action plans Conclusion 5 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY / LA CULTURE ET L'ÉCOLE, UN APERÇU

4 2 The Questionnaire: Results Introduction 37 Preludes Research National projects Instruments Monitoring and evaluation International exchange Dilemmas 2.2 Definitions 39 Priority 3 Starting points for a discussion Policy 41 Government policy in primary education Government policy on secondary education 2.4 Objectives 42 Objectives for arts and heritage education in primary education Artform-related Learning Personal development and experiential Social benefits Top three Objectives for arts and heritage education in secondary education Artform-related Learning Personal development and experiential Social benefits Top three 2.5 Content and form 49 Social relevance Compulsory and optional 2.6 Innovation Introduction European culture and citizenship 66 Social cohesion Citizenship Education systems and citizenship Recommendations for projects and programmes Issues 3.3 Different levels of collaboration between schools and cultural institutions 70 Member states, culture and education Examples Hampering and stimulating factors Public-private partnerships Transnational programmes Issues 3.4 Knowing through measuring 73 Arts and heritage education compared at EU level Sources of information Realistic ambitions Knowing through measuring in the future Issues 2.7 National projects Instruments Monitoring and evaluation International exchange In conclusion 58 Definitions Priority Policy Objectives Content and form Innovation Annexes 81 Objectives primary education Objectives secondary education Courses primary education Courses secondary education Examples of Actors Monitoring Cultural Co-operation and Cultural Policy Developments in Europe Respondents to the questionnaire Bibliography Glossary 6 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY / LA CULTURE ET L'ÉCOLE, UN APERÇU CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY / LA CULTURE ET L'ÉCOLE, UN APERÇU

5 La culture et l'école 105 Avant-propos Introduction Ébauche Questionnaire et but de l'enquête 2.2 Définitions 133 Priorité 1 Culture et enseignement dans les pays de l'ue Introduction Politique 135 Politique gouvernementale pour l'enseignement primaire Politique pour l'enseignement secondaire 1.2 L'Union européenne 113 Etats membres et structure organisationnelle Priorités Les activités d'enseignement et de formation Les programmes d'enseignement Coopération politique La culture et les programmes culturels L'enseignement artistique et du patrimoine 1.3 Autres organismes s'occupant d'enseignement et de culture en Europe 118 L'Unesco L'OCDE Le Conseil de l'europe ERICarts 1.4 L'enseignement dans les pays de l'ue 122 L'âge et la scolarité obligatoire Contrôle de qualité et autonomie L'enseignement préscolaire L'enseignement primaire L'enseignement secondaire Les professeurs Financement 2.4 Objectifs 137 Objectifs de l'enseignement des arts et du patrimoine dans l'enseignement primaire Lié à une forme d'art Apprentissage Développement personnel et apprentissage par l'expérience Bénéfices sociaux Le palmarès Objectifs de l'enseignement des arts et du patrimoine dans l'enseignement secondaire Lié à une forme d'art Apprentissage Développement personnel et apprentissage par l'expérience Bénéfices sociaux Le palmarès 2.5 Contenu et forme 144 Pertinence sociale Obligatoire et facultatif 2.6 Innovation Projets nationaux Instruments Politique culturelle dans les états membres de l'ue 126 Niveaux de pouvoir Conseil et autonomie Modèles de politique Coopération 1.6 Politique d'enseignement artistique et du patrimoine dans les pays de l'ue 128 Les projets régionaux et les programmes d'action Conclusion 2 Le Questionnaire: résultats Introduction Surveillance et évaluation Les échanges internationaux Conclusions 154 Définitions Priorités Politique Buts Contenu et forme Innovation Projets nationaux Instruments Surveillance et évaluation 8 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY / LA CULTURE ET L'ÉCOLE, UN APERÇU CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY / LA CULTURE ET L'ÉCOLE, UN APERÇU

6 Échanges internationaux Dilemmes 3 Eléments de discussion 161 Culture and School A survey of Policies for Arts and Heritage Education across the European Union 3.1 Introduction La culture européenne et la citoyenneté 162 La cohésion sociale La citoyenneté Systèmes éducatifs et citoyenneté Recommandations pour les projets et les programmes Questions 3.3 Différents niveaux de collaboration entre les institutions culturelles et éducatives 167 Etats membres, culture et enseignement Exemples Facteurs négatifs et positifs Collaboration publique et privée Programmes transnationaux Questions 3.4 Se connaître mutuellement par l'évaluation 171 Comparaison au niveau de l'ue de l'enseignement des arts et du patrimoine Sources d'information Ambitions réalistes Mesurer et savoir dans le futur Questions Annexes 179 Les objectifs enseignement primaire Les objectifs enseignement secondaire Courses enseignement primaire Courses enseignement secondaire Exemples d'acteurs suivant l'évolution de la coopération et de la politique culturelles en Europe Liste des personnes interrogées Bibliographie Glossaire 10 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY / LA CULTURE ET L'ÉCOLE, UN APERÇU CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

7 Preface Recently a group of children from a primary school in The Hague went to see the film Tinke, about an orphaned Danish girl living around Several pupils wrote a review of the film for a website. An 11-year-old girl wrote: To understand the film better, I often had to put myself in Tinke s place. That was not easy. You start to feel things which you ve never really felt before. It was an enjoyable and exciting film. This response at a stroke shows what arts and heritage education is for, namely to push back all kinds of frontiers: frontiers of countries, frontiers of the imagination, frontiers in time. Arts and heritage education. These days the subject is a fixture in the policies and ambitions of the EU member states. And that is just as well, because it means that we agree on the positive impact of arts and heritage education on the personal development and creativity of a learning child, on the atmosphere in a school, on a teacher s lesson. Arts and heritage education helps pupils to grow into self-confident and independent citizens eager to find out about others and the worlds they represent, into perhaps headstrong but at least involved European citizens. In 2001 it became clear that all EU member states wanted to look beyond the practice and situation of their own arts and heritage education. The A Must or a-muse conference on arts and heritage education in Europe held that year offered an opportunity to establish contacts and exchange information. Since then the responsible civil servants have been pooling their knowledge and expertise in an EUwide network of civil servants working in the field of national arts and heritage education policy. During the Dutch Presidency of the Council of the European Union we would both like to continue in the direction taken at the 2001 conference. We want to give a spur to the dialogue about arts and heritage education in primary and secondary education. That should be possible with a three-day conference on the results of an EU-wide study into developments in arts and heritage education policy. Crucial in this context are the issues whether and what arts and heritage education contributes to European citizenship and what cultural infrastructure the European countries need to stimulate cooperation in this area at EU level. And no less important are the more practical issues about the differences and similarities in policies and how collaboration at EU level may be useful or otherwise. The answers to the questionnaires provide a mountain of information on the policies pursued in the 25 EU member states. The exchanges, discussions and reflections of this conference will turn this mountain of information into a wealth of information. Colleagues from the EU member states will know where they can gain inspiration for certain initiatives, how they can improve their own national systems, and how they can find new solutions to old problems. To conclude, we would like to thank the member states for their contributions to the study, and we sincerely hope that after this conference and with the information in this publication everyone will be able with invigorated spirit and reaffirmed ambition to shift frontiers in their own countries. To ensure that the European citizens of the future will learn at an early stage to explore and overcome frontiers. With best wishes from the Minister and State Secretary of Education, Culture and Science of the Netherlands. Maria van der Hoeven Minister of Education, Culture and Science Medy van der Laan State Secretary of Education, Culture and Science 13 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

8 Introduction Within the framework of the Dutch Presidency of the Council of the European Union, a three-day international conference of experts in the area of arts and heritage education will be held in The Hague, the Netherlands, from 8-10 September The participants at the conference will be policy experts (mostly civil servants) from all EU member states who are involved with arts and heritage education, as well as representatives of the European Commission. Background At the international conference A Must or a-muse, Arts and Culture in Education: Policy and Practice in Europe, held in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in September 2001, it became apparent that the participating civil servants had a great need for exchange of information. At this conference more than 130 participants from 29 countries discussed policy, practice and research in the area of arts and heritage education. It was here that the idea of setting up an EU-wide network for civil servants working in the field of national arts and heritage education policy was put forward. The Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science agreed to act as the secretariat for such a network. In the past years a series of meetings have been held and a website has been set up. The aim of the network is to exchange information on arts and heritage education policy among the EU member states and to debate substantive issues. In this context, the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science dedicated itself to organising a conference on arts and heritage education policy in September 2004, in collaboration with Cultuurnetwerk Nederland, the Netherlands Expertise Centre for Arts and Cultural Education. The members of the EU-wide network of civil servants acted as a significant link between policy experts in their countries and the conference organisers. Purpose of the conference The purpose of the 2004 conference Culture and School: Policies for Arts and Heritage Education across the European Union is to gain insight into the various objectives, subjects and methods that EU member states apply when developing arts and heritage education curriculums, and to contribute to the development of comparable European indicators for arts and heritage education. Furthermore, the conference should spur the debate on arts and heritage education in Europe, based on the idea that arts and heritage education in the member states plays a crucial role in the development of European citizenship. The assumption is that arts and heritage education can contribute to greater mutual understanding among European citizens, and can play an important role in developing creative talents. The focus of the conference is on in-school arts and heritage education for children between the ages of 4 and 18, which basically encompasses primary and secondary education, with equal attention given to the arts and heritage. 15 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

9 Survey In preparation of the 2004 conference, a survey was undertaken by means of a questionnaire, which was sent to the EU member states. To that end the two A Must or a-muse publications (the Conference Reader and the Conference Results ), the questionnaire used in advance of the A Must or a-muse conference and the issues discussed during the meetings of the EU-wide network of civil servants in 2002 and 2003 were analysed and classified. There is a clear difference between the questions asked in the questionnaire prepared for the A Must or a-muse conference in 2001 and that prepared for the Culture and School conference in The questionnaire for the 2001 conference included mostly qualitative questions about policy, practice and theory, which were submitted to people in key positions in various European countries. The questions were mainly of a subjective nature, so that the respondents were able to put forward their views and opinions. This led to an eventual description of tendencies and trends. For the 2004 conference a quantitative questionnaire was submitted to government officials from EU member states only, asking explicitly about facts and figures on government policy in the area of arts and heritage education. The report on the results therefore focuses on a detailed presentation of the EU member states policy stances, rather than on broader interpretations of these. research into the possibilities of European exchange? This publication and perhaps even more the conference should make clear the extent to which policies are shared by the EU member states, the positions taken by them, which issues apply to particular countries, and the prevailing views with regard to the desired policy. In addition, it will become clear whether these really are the issues about which we should continue to hold useful discussions at a European level in the coming years. This publication In preparation of the conference, this publication describes, among other aspects, the EU member states arts and heritage education policies in primary and secondary education (i.e. for children between the ages of four and 18). Chapter 1 provides a summary of the activities of international organisations active in the culture and education sphere at the European level. The European Union is of course the most important organisation in this respect, but other organisations such as Unesco, the OECD and the Council of Europe also play a major role. The chapter ends with short descriptions of aspects and developments of the educational systems and culture policies of the EU member states. Chapter 2 describes the results and analysis of the survey. It has been set up in the same order as the questions of the questionnaire, that is, the data are analysed per question. The chapter ends with a summary of the main conclusions. Chapter 3 identifies a number of issues which need to be investigated and discussed during the conference, for instance the significance of and scope for arts and heritage education in the national and European context. This revolves around European citizenship, the European cultural infrastructure, and indicators and benchmarks. The Glossary at the end contains definitions of terms and expressions in the area of arts and heritage education for readers who require more detail. Closing remarks This publication could be a next step toward the systematic collection of more quantitative (and therefore comparable) and qualitative data about arts and heritage education policy and practice in primary and secondary education in the 25 EU member states. We asked for national policies. For the present, this publication provides a basis for mirroring one s own policies against those of other countries. Perhaps it could also serve as a springboard for 16 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

10 1 Culture and education in the EU countries 1.1 Introduction Sections 1.2 and 1.3 of this chapter provide a summary of the activities of international institutions in the culture and education sphere at a European level. The European Union is of course the most important organisation in this respect, but Unesco and the OECD for instance also play major roles. The sources used for this summary include relevant websites, brochures, draft reports and databases. Sections 1.4 and 1.5 give an indication of the situation of and developments within education and culture in the member states of the European Union. They do not provide a systematic overview for every country, but highlight trends and striking features from the available information with regard to education, culture and arts and heritage education. This information is drawn from the websites and databases of Eurydice and Cultural Policies (Compendium on Cultural Policies in Europe) respectively. Section 1.6 looks at the arts and heritage education policies of the member states, also in a summarized form. The source of this description is again the Compendium on Cultural Policies in Europe. 1.2 The European Union The European Union (EU) is a family of democratic European countries which jointly want to foster peace and prosperity. A major difference between the European Union and other international institutions is that the EU member states transfer part of their sovereignty to the EU, so that democratic decisions can be taken at European level on specific issues of common interest. All the EU s decisions and procedures are based on the various treaties agreed by all EU member states. The historical roots of the EU lie in the Second World War. The concept of European integration was conceived to ensure that Europe would never witness war and destruction again. The European Coal and Steel Community, founded in 1951, was the first expression of economic integration. In 1957 the Treaty of Rome marked the establishment of what at the time was called the European Economic Community (EEC), and in 1992 the Treaty of Maastricht laid down that the member states of the European Community would in future constitute the European Union. The integration process started with six countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom joined in 1973, Greece in 1981, Portugal and Spain in 1986, and Austria, Finland and Sweden in The accession of ten new members in 2004 marked the largest enlargement in the EU s history. In the early years cooperation was concentrated in the economic sphere, but these days the EU is also active in many other areas which relate directly to daily life, such as civil rights, employment, environmental protection and globalisation. Europe is not only rich in traditions and languages, it also shares a number of common values. The EU defends these values. It encourages cooperation among the peoples of Europe by striving for unity without losing sight of diversity. Member states and organisational structure The European Union currently consists of 25 member states: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden 19 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

11 and the United Kingdom. The candidate countries at this moment are Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Turkey. The EU s three key institutions are the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the European Commission. The European Parliament is the democratic voice of the citizens of the member states. Direct elections to the parliament are held every five years. The European Parliament s key tasks are to debate and approve European legislation, to set the budget, to exercise democratic control over the EU s other institutions, and to approve major international agreements. The Council of the European Union is the EU s main legislative and decision-making institution. The member states are directly represented in the Council through their ministers, who meet on a regular basis. The composition of the Council varies depending on the items on the agenda, such as foreign affairs, finance or education. The presidency rotates between the member states. During its six-month term each presidency organises two European Councils (also called European summits), which bring together the heads of government and set general political guidelines and priorities. The European Commission looks after most of the EU s day-to-day activities. The Commission prepares drafts of European legislation, which are then submitted to the European Parliament and the Council. The Commission also formulates working programmes to achieve the EU s objectives (i.e. peace and prosperity). In addition to the Parliament, the Council and the Commission, the EU has many other, usually supporting, institutions. Among these, the Committee of the Regions deserves special mention. The Committee of the Regions is the voice of the regional and local authorities. Many EU decisions such as those in the areas of education, health and transport have a direct impact at the local and regional levels. Before those decisions are taken, the local and regional authorities are consulted within the framework of the Committee of the Regions. The members of the Committee tend to be heads of regional governments or mayors of major cities. Priorities The development of a knowledge society and the promotion of awareness of a common cultural identity are currently (2004) two priorities of the European Union. The EU recognises the importance of education and lifelong learning and of the need for people to learn languages and acquire technical skills. In this context the EU wants to raise investments in people and their skills, because both are Europe s most important assets. In 2000 the European Council in Lisbon formulated the ambition to turn the EU into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustaining economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion (Europese Commissie, 2002, p. 7). At the same time a strategy was agreed which included, among other things, the promotion of research, education and training. To this end the open coordination method is used, whose main aim is to achieve a greater convergence in the EU s main objectives. The open coordination method is an instrument to help the member states to develop their own policies to realise the ambitions. Every spring the European Council meets to assess progress in the implementation of the strategy. During the same Lisbon summit it was agreed that a European research area would be created. One of its manifestations will be a fast trans-european network for electronic scientific communication, which will link up universities, research institutes and scientific libraries and gradually also schools. Measures will also be taken to enhance the freedom of movement of European researchers. And leading scientists across the world will be encouraged to come to Europe, and to stay here! According to the EU, some of the most important features of a common European identity are the common culture and the shared history. As the EU expands, this is proving increasingly difficult to formulate. In its treaties the EU has also anchored the notion of European citizenship. Incidentally, as the EU itself has observed, citizens on the whole still do not have a sense of a common European identity. They see the EU above all as a political and economic entity, and the realisation that there is a common European physical and intangible cultural heritage is still often absent. To foster the notion of European citizenship and solidarity, the EU attaches great importance to cultural activities which respect national and regional diversity but also emphasise the European heritage (article 128, title II, Treaty of Maastricht). In the eyes of the EU, the education system is the ideal location to nurture a new generation of European citizens. Education can teach active participation and joint responsibility, as well as knowledge about the rights and duties in a society based on freedom and democracy and respect for other cultures. Within the context of European citizenship the EU wants to enhance citizens awareness of the key role of Europe s regions in this respect. And education is the ideal instrument for doing so. The EU believes that it is important that EU citizens in particular students and young people become more familiar with the cultural heritage and the values which explain the diversity of the national identities. In this way other traditional, cultural, religious, historical and linguistic differences and/or rivalries can be overcome or be experienced as positive contributions to Europe s enormous cultural wealth and dynamism. Educational and training activities The Europe of education and training is the reflection of the diversity of languages, cultures and systems which form an integral part of the identities of the member states and their regions. Both the countries and the citizens put great store by this diversity; diversity is what all Europeans have in common. Even so, there is also a growing need for cooperation and mobility in the area of education and training. The awareness of this need for cooperation has grown steadily over the last 20 years because of the European integration process, but above all because politicians, teachers and students in the EU member states have often faced similar challenges and opportunities. In the European Union the member states (or their regions) are responsible for the organisation of their education and training systems and the contents of the educational programmes. The underlying principle of the EU s activities is subsidiarity, which implies that activities which can be carried out by the member states will not be taken on by the EU. According to this principle, the EU can support and supplement the activities of the member states in several areas of education and training. The aim is to improve quality and create added European value. In this area the EU s main concerns are: promotion of mobility among students and teachers; promotion of cooperation between schools and universities; promotion of language learning; wider recognition of titles, qualification and skills for educational and professional purposes. The EU is also increasingly aware of the importance of better education and better training and of the opportunities for lifelong learning in the interest of a strong economy. It has been calculated that if everyone spent one more year in education on average, the economy would expand by 5% over the short term and by another 2.5% over the long term. Better educated people find a job more easily, are generally healthier, are more active citizens and participate more in society. If the EU is to outperform its competitors in the knowledge-based economy, it will have to invest more and more effectively in education and training. 20 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

12 The EU has set itself the following targets for 2010: at least 85% of 22-year-olds must have completed higher secondary education; no more than 10% of 18- to 24-year-olds must leave school before completing higher secondary education or a vocational or other training; the total number of graduates in mathematics, exact sciences and technology must have increased by at least 15%, while the imbalance between men and women must also be reduced; the number of 15-year-olds with poor reading skills must be reduced by at least 20% compared with 2000; the average participation in lifelong learning must be at least 12.5% of 25- to 64-year-olds. The educational programmes Two kinds of activities have been developed at a European level to achieve these targets: European educational programmes, and political cooperation between the EU and the member states. The educational programmes Leonardo da Vinci, aimed at vocational training and lifelong learning, and the Socrates action programme for education have a combined budget of more than EUR 400 million per year. The Socrates programme includes: Comenius, which seeks to promote transnational cooperation among schools and to stimulate contacts between pupils in different countries; Minerva, which is concerned with the application of new technologies in the education system; Erasmus, which provides grants for students and teachers who spend time at a university in another European country; and Eurydice. Eurydice deserves special attention in this context. Eurydice is the information network on education in Europe, which aims to improve understanding of national education systems and education policies in order to promote mutual cooperation. The Eurydice network consists of a European unit and national units set up by the ministries of education in all countries participating in the Socrates programme. The European unit coordinates the network s activities, drafts and distributes most of the publications, compiles databases, and manages those databases and the Eurydice website. The national units collect data, contribute to the analysis of these data, and ensure that the results of the network s activities end up with the target groups at national level. In most countries the national unit is part of the ministry of education. In a few countries the national unit has been placed within a documentation centre or an institution responsible for administrative tasks and scientific research. Through Eurydice, reliable and comparable data on education systems and education policies are collected, processed, analysed and disseminated. Eurydice works closely with various European and international organisations, such as Eurostat (the statistical office of the European Community), the OECD, the Council of Europe and Unesco. Political cooperation In the area of political cooperation between the European Union and the member states on education and training, three strategic objectives were laid down in The first is to raise the quality and effectiveness of the education and vocational training systems in the EU; the second is to facilitate access to education and vocational training systems for all and the third is to open the education and vocational training systems to the rest of the world. Responsibility for achieving the joint objectives lies mainly with the participating countries. Most of the work of the Council and the Commission consists of realising this process by supporting the member states in their efforts to improve their education and training systems. Comparisons with other countries on the basis of indicators and benchmarks are considered particularly relevant in this context. Culture and cultural programmes In the area of culture, the European Union has a dual objective: to maintain and support the diversity of cultural activities, and to help make these activities accessible to others. Until 1999 the EU s cultural initiatives were limited to ad hoc projects, which were given more structure with several cultural pilot programmes, such as: Kaléidoscope, which promoted cultural productions and cooperation agreements with a European dimension; Ariane, which was concerned with literature; and Raphaël, which was intended to add a European dimension to the member states cultural heritage policies. These programmes paved the way for the EU s Culture 2000 programme. Culture 2000 is a five-year programme that will run to the end of An interim evaluation of the programme was conducted in June 2003, and because of its success the European Commission has proposed to extend the programme by two years and to increase its budget. Culture 2000 has ambitious objectives. It wants to contribute to the creation of a European cultural space; to help develop artistic and literary creations; to disseminate knowledge of European history and culture, both within the EU and beyond; to develop cultural-historical sites and cultural collections of European significance; and to stimulate an intercultural dialogue and social integration. More than 400 projects have been approved under the Culture 2000 programme. Most are concerned with the practice of art and the cultural heritage. The Cultural Capitals programme is intended to draw attention to the wide diversity of European culture, without ignoring that many cultural activities have a common source. Every year one or two cities are proclaimed the cultural capital of Europe. With EU financial support from the Culture 2000 programme, they organise exhibitions and events which highlight the cultural heritage of the city and region in question, as well as performances and concerts which bring together artists and players from all parts of the EU. The Cultural Capitals programme was originally scheduled to end in 2004, but it has proved so successful that it has been extended for another 15 years. There are other cultural programmes as well. The EU stimulates the competitiveness of the audiovisual sector with the media programmes Media Plus and Media Training. These programmes provide support in the areas of training, production, distribution, promotion and financing. The Commission has also proposed to extend these programmes to the end of 2006 and to increase their budgets. Arts and heritage education The EU devotes attention to arts and heritage education in several ways. Within the educational programme Socrates, for instance, Comenius offers broad support for the role of culture in schools. Examples are: - Interread: an intercultural reading project, specifically a training programme for intercultural language education for primary school pupils in the United Kingdom, Portugal and Flemishspeaking Belgium. - Evaluation of portfolios in the visual arts: a project for appropriate evaluation procedures for the work of art school students. - How to bring the arts closer to children: training programmes for kindergarten and primary school teachers to promote the European dimension in pre-school and primary education, specifically by means of broadening knowledge of Europe among teachers and exchange programmes for teachers. The cultural programmes also devote attention to culture and education. One of the objectives of the Culture 2000 programme is to guarantee better access to and participation in cultural activities in the EU for as many citizens as possible. Culture 2000 is concerned with coordination between the cultural sector and other sectors with common interests, such as culture, education and youth (in particular, the 22 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

13 presentations of audiovisual and multi-media products on European culture at schools and in vocational training). Then there is Connect, a now completed project with the aim of promoting cooperation and synergy between education and culture. The European Commission coordinated this project from 1999 to And finally, Eurydice contains information on arts and heritage education, for instance the number of hours devoted to arts subjects in the 2001/02 school year in the 30 countries participating in the Eurydice network, or the overview of how the subject of music is organised in the education systems of the EU s old member states (Eurydice, Directorate General for Research, 2002). An example of the activities of Eurydice in this area is its study on national initiatives to strengthen the relationship between education and culture (Eurydice, 2000). 1.3 Other organisations for education and culture in Europe The European Union is not the only organisation active in the field of education and culture in Europe. This section looks at the other international institutions which make systematic contributions to both policy-related and substantive developments in the area of education and culture. It pays special attention to their activities in the area of arts and heritage education. European lobby groups and umbrella organisations are not considered here. Unesco The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) was founded on 16 November At that time the organisation had 20 member states, now it has 188. Through international cooperation Unesco wants to improve understanding between peoples and thus promote peace in the world. With the publication of the Unesco World Culture Report 2000 the organisation committed itself to a more diverse concept of culture. This report describes culture as dynamic, ever changing in forms and colours over time, and constantly in search of new opportunities and meanings. Unesco s cultural activities are concentrated on the role of and the scope for maintaining cultural diversity. A declaration adopted by the Unesco General Conference in 2001 (Unesco, 2002) underlines the importance of cultural diversity. This declaration describes cultural diversity as the anchor for the identity of groups and people and as a foundation for creativity, together with people s right to retain their cultural identity. The best known Unesco programme in the area of culture is The Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) and its World Heritage List (the first of which was published in 1978). World heritage is cultural heritage that should be protected for humanity because of its special value. The list contains nearly 800 properties, complexes and landscapes, spread across the world. Most of them are located in Europe and the Americas; many countries do not have sufficient expertise to chart their heritage and nominate it as world heritage of special value. Unesco also devotes considerable attention to Intangible Cultural Heritage. Unesco defines intangible cultural heritage as practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills including the accompanying instruments, objects, artefacts and spaces which communities, groups and in some cases individuals recognise as part of their cultural heritage. In countries with relatively small tangible heritages, and also in the new EU member states, the intangible heritage plays a major role. These countries usually turn to Unesco for expertise. In 1999 the organisation launched the International Appeal for the Promotion of Arts Education and Creativity at School. This led to the Links to Education and Art (LEA International) programme, an international network of experts and practitioners. The aim of LEA is to extend contacts among arts education experts in order to achieve exchange and dissemination of best practices, pedagogical methods and source materials for each discipline. A special focus of LEA is strengthening the expertise of teachers of art and culture subjects. A series of studies and regional and continental meetings (e.g. in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Europe and the Caribbean) are being planned as part of Unesco s Programme and Budget for Artistic Creativity in LEA. The goal of these meetings is to draw up guidelines to prepare a method, a programme and pedagogical materials for artistic education by country as well as an overall coherent approach. An example of a study conducted under these auspices is Arts Education in the Pacific Region: Heritage and Creativity. The findings of these studies will eventually be discussed and presented at the World Congress on Artistic Education due to be held in Portugal in This world congress will be carried out by the Unesco Culture Sector in cooperation with the Education Sector in the context of the Forum Education for All. Specialised NGOs involved include the International Society for Education through Art (INSEA), the International Society for Music Education (ISME), the International Council for Music (IMC), the International Drama/Theatre Education Association (IDEA), International Education and other regional and national bodies dealing with arts education research around the world, such as Cultuurnetwerk Nederland. OECD The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), founded in 1961, is an alliance of 30 countries, including most West European countries, the United States, Australia and Japan. The OECD grew out of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), which was formed to administer US and Canadian aid under the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe after the Second World War. With active relationships with some 70 other countries, NGOs and civil society, it has a global reach. Best known for its publications and statistics, its work covers economic and social issues from macro-economics to trade, education, development and science and innovation. The OECD sets itself the task of promoting and harmonising the economic and social policies of the member states, and thus to contribute to the functioning of the world economy (with special attention to developing countries). To this end the organisation has set up committees for a number of areas, including macro-economic policy, energy and environment, trade, tourism, education, transport and development cooperation. The OECD also issues guidelines, for instance for multinational companies, which are widely respected and used. Exchanges between member governments flow from information and analysis provided by the OECD Secretariat in Paris. The organisation is one of the world s largest and most reliable sources of comparable statistical, economic and social data. Parts of the Secretariat collect data, monitor trends, and analyse and forecast economic developments, while others research social changes or evolving patterns in trade, environment, agriculture, technology, taxation and more. Every year the OECD publishes a large number of reports, magazines and statistics. Some relevant examples in the area of education are the publication Education at a Glance and the research programme PISA. Education at a Glance was prepared and published under the auspices of the OECD s Indicators of Educational Systems (INES) programme. This brings together governments, experts and institutions to work on the development and improvement of quantitative indicators. With these indicators (factors or values) it is possible to make broad international comparisons with regard to education, for instance in terms of performance, quality, participation, organisation and funding. The indicators, which are published and analysed at regular intervals, fulfil an ever growing need among policymakers, researchers and citizens to test the performance of their national education system against those of 24 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

14 similarly prosperous or neighbouring countries. Incidentally, the latest publication of indicators pays very little attention to arts and heritage in the education system. The PISA research programme, part of Indicators of Educational Systems (INES), is a triennial survey of the knowledge and skills of 15-year-olds in the major industrial countries. Around 265,000 pupils from 32 countries took part in the first survey, conducted in The pupils and their teachers completed questionnaires about themselves and their schools. On this basis PISA could determine which factors influence performances positively or negatively. PISA evaluates to what extent young people can apply their knowledge and skills in everyday situations. It measures not so much whether they have grasped what they have been taught, but more whether they understand major concepts and certain processes and whether they can apply their knowledge and skills in different situations. PISA also gathers information about pupils attitudes to learning and about their learning styles. PISA offers an international overview of pupils achievements in the areas of reading, mathematics and natural sciences and provides the participating countries with criteria against which the performances of pupils can be measured at regular intervals. Council of Europe The oldest political organisation in Europe is the Council of Europe, which was founded in It has 45 members, as well as five observers (Vatican City, Canada, Japan, Mexico and the United States). The Council of Europe is active in many areas. Democracy and human rights are the best known and the most important, but the Council is also active in stimulating economic and social progress in the area of culture and heritage. The Council of Europe is independent of the European Union. The main difference is that more European countries are members of the Council of Europe than of the EU. All EU member states are also members of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe aims to foster greater understanding of the member countries for each other and each other s heritage. As this develops, the countries will become more aware of the common values they share and they will start to feel part of a single European identity. The European Cultural Convention provides the framework for the work of the Council of Europe in the areas of education, culture, heritage, sport and youth. Under the Treaty of Granada (on architectural heritage) and the Treaty of Valetta (on archaeological heritage) for instance, standards, methods and best practices have been laid down for matters such as the interpretation and explanation of cultural heritage, the digital recording of cultural heritage, the protection and reconstruction of historical buildings, and the renovations of buildings in historical centres. An interesting research programme of the Council of Europe is Cultural Policies in Europe, a compendium of basic facts and trends. An extensive information system on cultural policies in European countries, this is a joint venture of the Council of Europe and ERICarts. The information is collected, analysed and published on a website by a network of experts at ministries, universities and research institutes as well as individual experts. Cultural Policies in Europe offers information on 38 European countries (with six EU member states not represented) in the area of culture policy. Subject areas include the organisation of policy, international cooperation, policy priorities, arts and heritage education and the funding of cultural activities. Depending on the care taken by the compilers and the frequency of updating, this database provides a reliable picture of cultural policy in each participating country. With several simple steps, it is also possible to compare subject areas by country. ERICarts The European Institute for Comparative Cultural Research (ERICarts) was founded in 1998 as an independent international institution. Where possible it cooperates with governmental organisations, universities and other scientific organisations in the areas of culture and cultural networks. Furthermore, research fellows acting in an advisory capacity represent disciplines such as cultural studies and culture policy research, economics, political science, sociology, history, social anthropology and ethnology, law, literature and the visual arts. This diversity assures an interdisciplinary and global expertise. ERICarts stimulates cultural and scientific dialogue through publications, the website, conferences and other activities. Major research areas are culture policy and systems of governance; trends and needs in European cultural and scientific cooperation; arts and culture education; professional qualifications in the arts and media; and trends and developments in the cultural industries, culture and everyday life. 1.4 Education in the EU countries In 2000 there were around 85 million Europeans under the age of 20 years. In 1975 there were around 110 million. This decline in the proportion of people under the age of 20 started later in the new EU member states than in the 15 old member states. However, at the moment the proportion of young people in the new member states is falling much more rapidly than that in the old member states. Within Europe there are considerable differences by country in the proportion of young people. In countries such as France, Italy and Portugal, there are also considerable regional differences. Ages and compulsory education The age at which European children first go to school ranges from two to six years. In the old member states compulsory education generally starts at the age of five or six. In the northern EU member states and many new member states most children only enter primary education at the age of seven. In most countries children remain in compulsory education for 14 to 16 years, first in primary education and then in the lower levels of secondary education. At the end of primary education children in Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Slovakia have to choose between various forms of secondary education. After the initial years of secondary education, children in most countries can then choose between general education, technical education and vocational education. These are offered as full-time education, or as a combination of education and work in a business, or as an apprenticeship. In most countries the school age ends at the age of 15 or 16. In Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Poland compulsory education has been extended by two to three years, during which the children have to follow at least a part-time training course. In Hungary the school age was raised to 18 in the 2000/01 school year. In most countries many young people leave school as soon as they are no longer of school age, and on average boys leave the education system at an earlier age than girls. In Portugal this gap is as much as 16%, while in Italy and the Netherlands the number of boys and girls leaving the education system at this stage is the same. In nearly all countries the percentage of girls who complete higher secondary education with a diploma is higher than the percentage of boys. This is particularly true for the new member states. Quality control and autonomy Most pupils in the EU countries go to state schools. The number of pupils educated in private schools independent of government is negligible. However, in some countries government-dependent private schools 1 account for a significant share of the educational provision. In Belgium and the Netherlands, over half of all pupils attend schools of this kind and over 20% of pupils do so in France and Spain. Pupils (and parents) in the Flemish-speaking Community of Belgium, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom have the widest choice between private and state schools. These countries are also those 26 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

15 where the state schools enjoy the greatest autonomy. The educational institutions in the Netherlands have the greatest autonomy, and the degree of autonomy among state schools in Finland and Sweden is also high. With the exception of Malta, the new EU member states have few government-dependent private schools. The proportion of pupils enrolled in such schools is below 5% on average. State schools in the new member states enjoy a degree of autonomy comparable to that of schools in the old member states. But the areas in which they have authority are not the same. For instance, schools in the Central European countries are generally free to choose their staff, but their freedom to choose educational materials is very limited. Parents are often involved in the governance of the school. In some countries, especially Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom, they actually have considerable decision-making powers. In the new member states parents generally have fewer powers. The member states use various instruments to ensure the quality of the education system, such as regulations on the power of teachers and the organisation of examinations. For instance, in the majority of old member states and half the new member states, independent external examiners are involved in the examination process and the results of exams are published nationwide. Pre-school education More and more children start their education at pre-school level. Day nurseries and crèches often offer a learning environment for toddlers. From the age of four at the latest, children enter educational institutions whose staff have teaching qualifications. In the 25 EU member states as a whole, around 90% of four-year-olds are enrolled in some form of pre-school education. The objectives of pre-school education are broadly the same in all member states. They concern the stimulation of general development, independence, responsibility, self-confidence, the beginnings of citizenship and preparation for school life. In other words, the overriding goal of pre-school education is to teach children how to learn and thus to prepare them for a life of learning. In most countries the curriculum is described in terms of living with each other, developing speech and language skills, discovering the world, imagining, feeling and creating. Depending on age, there are two ways of placing children in a group, according to the school model or the family model. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden, children are grouped according to the family model from the age of four onwards. This means that children of different ages are in the same group. Most countries use the school model, in which groups are formed on the basis of age, often from the age of three onwards. There are also hybrids of the two models. The number of pupils per teacher is slightly higher in the school model than in the family model, around children. Primary education In most cases, primary education lasts six years. In Denmark, Finland, Portugal, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Slovakia and Slovenia, primary education forms a single type of education with the first phase of secondary education. Primary education in these countries therefore lasts between eight and ten years. The step from pre-school to primary education is generally taken at the start of the school year in which the child reaches school age. As well as age, the decision as to whether the child is ready to take the step to primary education also takes account of the child s development. In most countries a single teacher is responsible for a class in the early years of primary education. This teacher also gives instruction in nearly all subjects. The maximum permitted class size varies from 24 in Lithuania to 36 in Estonia. Belgium, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Sweden and Poland have no provisions for minimum or maximum class sizes. In most European countries the average number of lessons in primary education runs to between 600 and 800 hours per year. In France, Italy, the Netherlands and Scotland this average is above 800 hours. In Italy the average minimum teaching time is as high as 980 hours per year. In Latvia, at the other extreme, this average is below 500 hours. In the new member states the average minimum annual teaching time tends to be lower than in the old member states. All countries of the European Union have formulated objectives for primary education. A number of countries, such as Estonia, set out these objectives in some detail. The concepts used include selfesteem, citizenship, dignity and human rights, but also environmental awareness, information procession and working with computers. Other countries, such as France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, rely on a less elaborate description of the objectives. France, for instance, defines the objective as follows: elementary school gives the pupil the basic elements and tools of knowledge: oral and written expression, reading and mathematics. It enables him or her to exercise and develop his or her intelligence, sensitivity and manual, physical and artistic aptitudes. The Dutch version is as follows: primary education aims to promote the development of children s emotions, intellect and creativity and the acquisition of essential knowledge together with social, cultural and physical skills in an uninterrupted process of development. Teaching must reflect the fact that pupils are growing up in a multicultural society. Italy reports that one of the objectives of primary education is to promote cultural literacy. The amount of time required for compulsory subjects varies. In the Flemish-speaking Community of Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and the United Kingdom, more than 50% of the total teaching time can be decided by the school itself. Schools in the new member states tend to have less scope to structure a substantial part of the education as they see fit. In nearly all countries the curriculum is decided by the central government. One exception is Germany, where the federal states decide the curriculum. The compulsory subjects, laid down in syllabuses, are broadly the same for all countries. They include reading and writing, arithmetic, nature studies, sport, artistic activities and religious studies or philosophy of life. Incidentally, there is a growing trend towards making the learning of a foreign language compulsory at primary education level. Secondary education At the end of primary education, pupils move automatically to secondary education (in some countries after testing or examinations). At this stage pupils in Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Slovakia can opt for either a general education or specialised technical, pre-vocational or vocational training. The other countries offer only a general education at different levels after primary education. Pupils in these countries make the choice between a general education and technical or vocational training after a foundation of secondary education. The general objectives for compulsory secondary education are broadly speaking the same as those for primary education, although targets are also set regarding the achievement of certain levels of qualification. The courses of education provided within the secondary level should lead either to a higher education entrance qualification or vocational qualification for skilled work as qualified staff. 1 A government-dependent private institution is one that receives more than 50% of its core funding from government agencies. Additionally, institutions are classified as government-dependent if their teaching staff are paid by a government agency. The high percentage of this type of schools in both Belgium and the Netherlands is caused by the legal form; form and content of education, however, do not significantly differ from those of the public schools. The range of subjects in the first and second years of compulsory secondary education are virtually the same in all countries. They include reading and writing, literature, mathematics, physics, a foreign language, art, sport and religion or philosophy. The total amount of teaching time during the first 28 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

16 phase of secondary education differs from country to country, but the variation is not as great as within primary education. The teaching time allocated to the various compulsory subjects is broadly the same in all countries. The free portion of the timetable (i.e. that to be decided by the school) is smaller than in primary education, but it remains substantial. In many EU member states more pupils are enrolled in vocational education during the second phase of secondary education (from the age of 15 or 16) than in general secondary education. But the opposite is the case in Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain and Sweden. In 2000 nearly 80% of young people in the European Union successfully completed their secondary education. In most cases they receive a diploma after passing a centrally or locally set examination. In some countries the diploma is awarded on the basis of results achieved over the whole year. Other countries rely on a combination of both systems. Teachers An estimated million teachers are active in primary and secondary education across the European Union. Around a quarter of them work part-time, but the proportion varies widely from country to country. Most primary school teachers are women. The division between the sexes is more balanced in secondary education, but female teachers still outnumber male teachers. This is particularly true in the new member states. In most countries teacher training consists of university or higher vocational education courses lasting three to six years. For those who plan to work at the lowest educational level, there are continuation courses after secondary education. A rule of thumb is that the higher the qualification, the greater the powers a teacher will be given. Around two-thirds of all teachers in the EU countries are aged 40 years or older. The ageing of the teaching profession can be attributed in part to the limited availability of jobs in recent years. There were simply no new jobs for younger teachers. In most countries teachers can retire at the age of 60, in some cases at the age of 55. Funding Education in the European Union is almost wholly funded by the government. The financing or sponsoring of education through foundations or businesses is negligible. All EU member states invest substantial amounts in education: 11.2% of public spending on average, with Greece for instance at one end with 6.4%, and Denmark at the other with 14.5%. Government expenditure on education is below the EU average in Germany, Greece, Italy and the Netherlands, but above the EU average in Austria, Denmark, Finland and Sweden. In the EU member states an average of 28% of educational resources are allocated to primary education, 48% to secondary education and 24% to tertiary education. In four countries spending on education has increased in recent years. In Greece and Portugal spending on education is following the general upward trend in government expenditure; and in Denmark and Sweden spending on education has increased despite cuts in overall expenditure. Salaries constitute the largest budget item, accounting for an average of 75% of total expenditure. Given the importance of staff costs, the decisions on the allocation of financial resources are taken by the central government in most countries. With regard to the other expenditure categories, such as operational assets, property, capital investments and so on, decision-making tends to be more decentralised. In any case a large proportion of the remaining 25% of resources is more or less fixed for basic facilities such as accommodation and cleaning. This means in effect that there is very little scope for additional outlays, and hence for additional attention to arts and heritage in the education system. 1.5 Culture policies in the EU countries The cultural policies of the EU member states 2 have widely divergent visions, objectives and methods. The policy models vary from highly centralised to highly decentralised. Some countries have an ad hoc policy which concentrates on funding one-off projects. Others conclude agreements and multi-year contracts with cultural and other institutions and seek to realise a long-term vision and accompanying objectives. Tiers of government The countries of the European Union have different forms of government. All the new member states are republics; some of the old member states are monarchies. Furthermore, Germany is a federal state and France defines itself as a parliamentary (presidential) republic. But despite the various constitutional arrangements, it is possible to distinguish broadly three tiers of government, which play an important role in the organisation of culture policy. First there is the national or central government, formed by ministers and/or state secretary who head their respective ministries or departments. Responsibility for culture often lies with a ministry of education, science and culture (e.g. in Austria and the Netherlands) or with a department of arts, sport and tourism (Ireland). Other countries have a separate ministry of culture (Portugal, Sweden, Slovenia). In addition to a central government, most countries also have a tier of regional government, that is, regions or provinces constituted on geographical or linguistic lines. Examples are local authorities, provinces, Bundesländer (federal states), regions, linguistic communities, counties, departments and districts. Responsibility for culture at this level lies with either a local cultural department or an executive agency of the regional authority. And finally, there is a tier of local government, formed by cities, towns and/or municipalities. Responsibility for culture at this level lies with either the city or town councillor or the mayor. In most cases, responsibility for legislation and subsidies related to culture policy lies with the national government, that is, a ministry and/or the legislature. They decide the direction, goals and priorities of culture policy. Often this involves what is called horizontal consultation, i.e. consultations with other ministries. The ministries of culture and education (in countries where both policy areas do not fall under the same ministry) tend to work most closely together. This is reflected in the form of joint cultural programmes, for instance. International cultural cooperation tends to involve contact with the ministry of foreign affairs, and issues of cultural legislation are dealt with in conjunction with the ministry of justice. Other ministries which are mentioned as cooperation partners for culture are those of economic affairs, housing, finance, the environment, media and tourism. Advice and autonomy In some countries the government is assisted in the culture policy sphere by a council or advisory committee. The Netherlands, for instance, has the independent Council for Culture, which advises the state secretary of culture on the distribution of subsidies. Ireland has the Arts Council, which gives independent advice to the government on subsidies. In several countries the regional authorities have extensive responsibilities and powers. In some countries the regions have their own governments and can formulate and implement their own laws and policies. In Germany, for instance, the federal states have their own governments and budgets. The same is true for the three linguistic communities in Belgium. The regions in countries with decentralised policy models also often have their own financial resources for cultural activities. But in other 2 The Compendium contains no information on Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Luxembourg, Slovakia and Spain. These countries are therefore not considered in this section. 30 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

17 countries, such as Ireland, the regions have only administrative powers and they implement the policies formulated by the national government. Towns or municipalities are usually responsible for the policies and budgets of local cultural institutions and organisations. arts education. The local and regional authorities involve themselves in cultural activities at schools in a variety of ways, such as the planning and fitting out of school premises under their authority and the funding of cultural initiatives (e.g. music appreciation programmes in schools). Policy models As mentioned, the policy models of the EU countries vary from highly centralised to highly decentralised. In a decentralised model all tiers of government are autonomous and there is no national direction or long-term objective. Each region or community can formulate and implement its own objectives and make its own alliances. It is worth noting that in certain countries characterised by a highly centralised culture policy, a trend is evident towards decentralisation of responsibilities. Municipalities also seem to be increasingly developing their own culture policies and are thus becoming ever more independent. An intermediate form between the centralised and decentralised policy models is the complementary model. In this case the national government is responsible for granting subsidies. It drafts a four- or five-year policy plan which sets out the direction of culture policy and the long-term objectives. Cultural institutions which want to receive subsidies have to submit their own long-term plans at the start of such a period. These plans are evaluated by an advisory council, and the government then decides which institutions will be subsidised. The national government may share the subsidy costs with lower-tier authorities. In these cases the allocation of costs and responsibilities between national and lower-tier authorities are laid down in agreements or contracts. Cooperation Consultation and cooperation between different tiers of government (i.e. vertical cooperation ) is highly dependent on the level of autonomy. In the case of autonomous regions, and sometimes also cities, the extent and emphasis of cultural activities may differ by region or city. This may impede or even frustrate cooperation. In other countries, cooperation between different regions, public agencies, institutions, cultural initiatives and facilities is a major aspect of the country s cultural development and policy. Partnerships are common features in these countries, with some serving simply an informative function, while others execute specific joint cultural programmes. 1.6 Arts and heritage education policies in the EU countries Every EU member state devotes attention to arts and heritage education, although the extent to which they do so varies considerably. The countries also report that arts and heritage education can take place inside or outside school, or both. In Finland, France, Germany, Greece and Estonia, for instance, extracurricular arts education plays a major role. The French government subsidises, through local and regional authorities, around 3,000 public music schools and associative schools. In some countries arts and heritage education has no place in parts of the education system, and hence it does not receive systematic attention there. This usually applies to secondary education. It is striking, however, that nearly all countries are developing or have already implemented plans to strengthen arts and heritage education in the education system. One example is the introduction of the subject of culture and arts education in secondary education in the Netherlands. Another is the reform of the Danish secondary education system in 2005, which will involve new provisions for individual art subjects, compulsory cooperation among the art subjects, the promotion of new forms of activity, and the introduction of a new examination. A striking recurrent side effect of policy development is the cooperation between various ministries. In most cases this involves the two ministries of culture and education, which are increasingly collaborating with local and regional authorities with which they occasionally draw up agreements on National projects and action plans In various countries such as the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Finland and the Netherlands major action plans have been in place for some years already. They tend to concentrate on cooperation between schools and cultural institutions, although the objectives of the respective governments tend to vary. The British Artsmark programme, for instance, is an award scheme which recognises good arts education practice in schools. The scheme encourages schools not only to provide quality arts opportunities for young people but also to develop and support teachers in their delivery. As a benchmark of excellence, Artsmark aims to improve standards of arts education provision, raise its profile nationally, within schools, arts organisations and communities, and encourage effective partnerships between schools and arts agencies and other organisations. The French Five-Year Plan to Develop Arts and Culture in Schools, launched in 2001, is intended to place art and culture at the centre of education rather than banishing it to the margins of the curriculum. The underlying notion is that schools are ideally suited to overcome social and cultural inequality. The plan specifically provides for compulsory and optional subjects and for cooperation between schools and cultural institutions. Then there is CANON, the culture cell of the education department in Flemish-speaking Belgium. CANON wants to introduce pupils and teachers to art and culture in an open and creative learning environment. Within this core objective CANON constantly establishes links between the educational and cultural worlds: through workshops, projects, publications and activities it tries to give culture a permanent place in the school and in lessons, as well as to introduce the cultural world to the opportunities within the education system. The Oak of Finland Plus is a project that seeks to raise the awareness of the Finnish people of their cultural heritage and to strengthen the role of cultural heritage in education. It seeks to foster cooperation between schools and cultural heritage institutions, for instance by developing cooperation models and teaching materials. The British authorities are currently developing the Museum & Galleries Education Strategy. The aims are to encourage cross-curriculum learning in schools, strengthen the cultural sector, and enhance the expertise of teachers and staff at cultural institutions. In the Netherlands the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science launched the Culture and School project in 1997 in order to bring the education system and the cultural world together. Cooperation is the crux: at the regional and local levels, joint efforts with the provinces and large municipalities to develop a range of arts and heritage projects; and at the national level, a major instrument is the extension of discounts for secondary school pupils for cultural activities. Initially the Culture and School project focused on three priorities, which the government believed required additional attention: cultural heritage, multicultural issues and pre-vocational education. Subsequently this was supplemented with stronger attention to literature and media education. And recently, primary education has become a spearhead in this project. 32 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

18 Conclusion In conclusion, then, arts and heritage education is gaining attention in the European Union. Policies in the EU member states and at the EU level are aimed at anchoring culture ever more firmly in the education system. The next chapter will look at the results of the questionnaire on this topic. References Council of Europe & ERICarts (2000). Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends. Bonn: ARCultMedia. Websites European Commission (2002). Key Data on Education in Europe Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Europees Parlement, Commissie cultuur, jeugd, onderwijs, media en sport (2004). Ontwerpverslag over de rol van de scholen en het onderwijs bij het optimaliseren van de toegang tot cultuur. Voorlopige versie. Europese Commissie (2002). Onderwijs en opleiding in Europa: verschillende stelsels, dezelfde doelstellingen voor Luxemburg: Bureau voor officiële publicaties der Europese Gemeenschappen. Europese Unie (1992). Verdrag betreffende de Europese Unie. Publicatieblad Nr. C 191 van 29 juli [Verdrag van Maastricht = Treaty of Maastricht]. Eurydice (2002). Initiatives nationales liant Éducation et Culture. Analyse des résultats de l enquête menée auprès des unités nationales Eurydice et rédigée par l Unité européenne Eurydice. Bruxelles: Eurydice. Eurydice, Directorate General for Research (2000). Music education in the school systems in the EU Member States. Brussels: Eurydice. OECD (2003). Education at a glance: OECD indicators Paris: OECD. Schuman, R. (2000). Declaration of 9 May In P. Fontaine, A new idea for Europe: The Schuman declaration (pp ). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Unesco (2000). World Culture Report: Cultural Diversity, Conflict and Pluralism. Paris: Unesco. Unesco (2002). Unesco universal declaration on cultural diversity. Adopted by the 31st session of the General Conference of Unesco. Paris, 2 November Paris: Unesco. Unesco (2003). Arts education in the Pacific region: heritage and creativity. Paris: Unesco. 34 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

19 2 The Questionnaire: Results 2.1 Introduction During a keynote address at the A Must or a-muse conference in September 2001, John Harland and Pippa Lord of the National Foundation for Educational Research in the United Kingdom gave an overview of the research undertaken in the area of arts and heritage education. They concluded that there had been little empirical research into in-school culture education, that there was virtually no quantitative research, and that most of the available research was concerned with the visual arts and music. Most research, Harland and Lord said, is undertaken by individual researchers, such as PhDs or academics. Often this research relates to a personal interest of the researcher and is not sponsored research. There is also some teacher practitioner research. Again, this is not often sponsored, but is undertaken perhaps as part of a teacher s continuing professional development or further study. Other research is undertaken by independent national research organisations with sponsors such as national arts organisations or government departments. They concluded: There is a dearth of research into arts education, much of it is fragmented and lacks cohesion, and it is often very small-scale with few country-wide studies (Harland & Lord, 2002, p. 166). Preludes Although there is little comparative European research into arts and heritage education, two studies served as preludes for the survey conducted in the spring of 2004 in preparation for the planned Culture and School conference. The first was the study by Ken Robinson for the Council of Europe (1997). The aim of this research was to collate and compare information on current arts education provisions in a number of Council of Europe member states. With the help of a questionnaire Robinson gathered information on current provisions for the arts in formal education at primary and secondary level. According to Robinson, The survey confirms that existing patterns of provisions for the arts in schools vary considerably between member states. In some countries, there are strict prescriptions in content and assessment criteria to be followed by schools and teachers in all subjects. In others, there is freedom within national frameworks for schools and teachers to develop their own curricular content and teaching methods. In some countries, the arts are given a positive profile in national policy statements and schools are strongly encouraged to develop them both within and outside the formal curriculum. In the majority of countries, this is not the case. (Robinson, 1997, p. 11). The second study was the survey by Ton Bevers for the A Must or a-muse conference held in 2001 in Rotterdam 1. As part of the preparation for this conference, a questionnaire about in-school arts and cultural education in Europe was sent to experts in each European country. Bevers s conclusion on arts and heritage education policy echoed that of Robinson several years earlier: On paper, the policy, practice and evaluation links of in-school arts and cultural education form a splendid chain. In reality this cohesion hardly exists. Despite the fact that education policy and cultural policy are combined in 1 The survey was conducted by Ton Bevers (Erasmus University, Rotterdam) in in 35 European countries. Experts from 20 European countries replied to the questionnaire. The survey was prepared by representatives of the Boekmanstichting in Amsterdam and Cultuurnetwerk Nederland in Utrecht, who also assisted with the practical work. 37 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY

20 arts and cultural education in schools, in practice these are two separate fields with their own players. This is definitely the case where two ministries are involved. The personal policy priorities of each individual ministry determine the distribution of attention, input and resources. This may impede the cohesion and coordination of policy implementation in the field of arts and cultural education. It not only has an impact on in-school arts and cultural education, but may have an adverse effect on the relationship between the field of education and the world of cultural institutions (Bevers, 2001, p. 41) Research In early 2004 a survey was undertaken as a way of taking stock prior to the conference Culture and School: Policies for Arts and Heritage Education across the European Union. This survey was designed to gather policy information about arts and heritage education in primary and secondary education in the European Union. The research data were gathered on the basis of a structured questionnaire which consisted mostly of closed questions. The questionnaire was prepared after consultation with the EUwide network of civil servants working in the area of national cultural education policy. 2 In the early part of 2004 the first draft of the questionnaire was presented for comment to all the members of the network. Two well known policy researchers from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands also commented on the questionnaire. 3 In early March the Dutch minister of education, culture and science, Maria van der Hoeven, and the state secretary of education, culture and science, Medy van der Laan, sent the questionnaire to their ministerial and junior ministerial colleagues in the 25 EU member states. The questionnaire focuses on government-formulated policy on arts and heritage education in primary and secondary education. The frequent use of the word government in a general sense should be taken to mean the government body responsible for drafting education policy. Depending on the country, this can mean the central or national government, or in other cases the decentralised government. The survey made it possible to sketch an outline of the current agenda with regard to policy in the field of in-school arts and heritage education in the European countries involved. First and foremost, the results should provide the participants of the Culture and School conference insight into how arts and heritage education is shaped in the government policies of EU member states. The report, as presented in this chapter, is almost entirely based on the written reactions of governmental experts from the respective EU member states. This research method making an inventory on the basis of a structured questionnaire does not yield standardised results by which countries can be placed in categories ranging from more to less or from high to low. However, the results yield quite a reliable impression of what is going on in the EU member states, because the information was produced by experts in the field. Many informants will also attend the Culture and School conference and can then be asked to give further explanations. This chapter describes the results and the analysis of the survey. It has been set up in the same order as the questions of the questionnaire. First the various definitions of arts and heritage education used by the EU member states are considered. Then the importance which the authorities attach to arts and heritage education in primary and secondary education. Then the formulated education policy, the 2 During the international conference A Must or a-muse, Arts and Culture in Education: Policy and Practice in Europe, which was held in late September 2001 in accompanying objectives and the form and contents of the education. And then the questions concerning large-scale national projects in the area of arts and heritage education and the monitoring and evaluation of education policy are examined. And finally, the state of affairs with regard to international exchange is outlined. 2.2 Definitions The definition of arts and heritage varies between national educational systems. The following question was put to all member states: Has the government formulated a definition of arts and heritage education in primary and secondary education, and if so, are arts education and heritage education defined separately or jointly? To channel respondents thinking, several sample definitions were included in the questionnaire: All forms of education in which the arts and cultural heritage are involved; All forms of education in which the arts or creative skills and techniques are involved; All forms of education in which the arts or creative skills and techniques are the main objective of the education. Four countries did not answer this question, the other 21 countries did. Ten countries have formulated separate definitions for arts education and heritage education, and ten use a joint definition. Luxembourg has both separate definitions and a joint definition. In categorising the definitions, it is striking that when a separate definition for arts education is used, the concept of art in education is usually described in terms of various artistic disciplines, such as the visual arts and music. In the case of definitions of heritage of education, most countries stress its crossdiscipline character. Often a direct link is also made with the curriculum for the subject of history. The school should stimulate each pupil towards self-development and personal growth. It should focus not only on intellectual but also practical, sensual and aesthetic aspects. Pupils should have the opportunity of experiencing the expression of knowledge in different ways. They should also be encouraged to try out and develop different modes of expression and experience feelings and moods. Drama, movement, dance, music and creativity in art, writing and design should all form part of the school s activity. Harmonious development and education provides opportunities for exploring, researching, acquiring and representing different forms of knowledge and experiences. Creative ability is a part of what the pupils should acquire. The school is responsible for ensuring that all pupils completing compulsory education are familiar with central parts of our Swedish, Nordic and Western cultural heritages and that they have knowledge about the national minorities cultures, languages, religions and history. (Sweden) Rotterdam, it became clear that the participating national policy experts welcomed exchange of information. To meet this need, an EU-wide network of civil servants working in the field of national cultural education policy was set up in the then 15 EU member states. The Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science agreed to act as secretary for this network of civil servants. The aim of the network is to exchange information and documentation on examples of good practice in policy formulation, policy preparation, policy direction and policy evaluation. This is achieved through expert meetings and a website. Countries which use a joint definition for arts and heritage education take the view that the arts and heritage go together as a matter of course and put a strong stamp on a country s culture. 3 John Harland (National Foundation for Educational Research, United Kingdom) and Teunis IJdens (Institute for Policy Research and Consultancy, IVA, University of Tilburg, Netherlands). 38 CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY CULTURE AND SCHOOL, A SURVEY