Bibliographie & Ressources Systèmes de Transports Intelligents (ITS) : Algorithmes et technologies

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1 Bibliographie & Ressources Systèmes de Transports Intelligents (ITS) : Algorithmes et technologies Entrée en matière Quelques définitions : Intelligent transportation system Intelligent transport systems (ITS) are advanced applications which, without embodying intelligence as such, aim to provide innovative services relating to different modes of transport and traffic management and enable various users to be better informed and make safer, more coordinated, and 'smarter' use of transport networks. Although ITS may refer to all modes of transport, EU Directive 2010/40/EU of 7 July 2010 on the framework for the deployment of intelligent transport systems in the field of road transport and for interfaces with other modes of transport defines ITS as systems in which information and communication technologies are applied in the field of road transport, including infrastructure, vehicles and users, and in traffic management and mobility management, as well as for interfaces with other modes of transport. <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> Floating Car Data Le Floating car data («données de véhicule flottant») ou FCD est une méthode pour connaître le trafic sur le réseau routier. Elle est basée sur la collecte de données de localisation, de vitesse, de sens du déplacement des véhicules roulants. Ces données sont des sources essentielles pour l'information sur le trafic et plus encore pour les systèmes de transport intelligent ou STI. Cela signifie que tout véhicule équipé de manière approprié peut agir comme une sonde pour le réseau routier. À partir de ces données, les embouteillages peuvent être identifiés, les temps de parcours calculés et des rapports sur l'état du trafic peuvent être instantanément générés. Par opposition aux caméras de surveillance du trafic, aux systèmes de reconnaissance de plaques d'immatriculation et aux boucles de détection intégrées dans la chaussée, aucun matériel supplémentaire sur le réseau routier n'est nécessaire. <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> Système de transport intelligent Les systèmes de transport intelligents (STI) (en anglais Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)) désignent les applications des nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication au domaine des transports. On les dit "Intelligents" parce que leur développement repose sur des fonctions généralement associées à l'intelligence : capacités sensorielles, mémoire, communication, traitement de l'information et comportement adaptatif. On trouve les STI dans plusieurs champs d'activité : dans l'optimisation de l'utilisation des infrastructures de transport, dans l'amélioration de

2 la sécurité (notamment de la sécurité routière) et de la sûreté ainsi que dans le développement des services. L'utilisation des STI s'intègre aussi dans un contexte de développement durable : ces nouveaux systèmes concourent à la maîtrise de la mobilité en favorisant entre autres le report de la voiture vers des modes plus respectueux de l'environnement. Ils font l'objet d'une compétition économique serrée au niveau mondial. <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> Urban Traffic Management and Control The Urban Traffic Management Control or UTMC programme is the main initiative of the UK Department for Transport (DfT) for the development of a more open approach to Intelligent Transport Systems or ITS in urban areas. UTMC systems are designed to allow the different applications used within modern traffic management systems to communicate and share information with each other. This allows previously disparate data from multiple sources such as ANPR cameras, Variable- message sign (VMS), car parks, traffic signals, air quality monitoring stations and meteorological data, to be amalgamated into a central console or database. The idea behind UTMC is to maximise road network potential to create a more robust and intelligent system that can be used to meet current and future management requirements. <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> Pour commencer Articles, billets de blog : [Page web] V- Trafic - premier service à intégrer le Floating Mobile Data d Orange comme source d information trafic. Mediamobile, premier fournisseur de services d information trafic en France, et Orange, premier opérateur français, annoncent la signature d'un accord pour utiliser des données de déplacements des mobiles anonymement au service de l information trafic routier. Cette nouvelle source viendra enrichir les services V- Trafic, édités par Mediamobile. business.com/fr/presse/communiques/success/mediamobile.html <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> Sohm, J. Kerzreho, JP., Hornych. P. et al. Acquisition des données à distance pour évaluer l'état d'une structure de chaussée: la route intelligente? = Remote data acquisition to evaluate condition of a pavement structure: smart road? In Revue générale des routes et de l aménagement, n 901, pp , La société Cofiroute, gestionnaire, entre autres, des autoroutes A10, A11, A71, A28, A85 et A81, réalise depuis quelques années la reconstruction des voies lentes sur la section du tronc commun A10/A11. Dans un souci de développement durable et d'économie des ressources, les travaux visent à réhabiliter cette voie en utilisant principalement les matériaux du site par un retraitement en place au ciment et un recyclage (à un taux de 30 %) des anciennes couches de chaussée: le taux de recyclage total dans la structure est de 70 %. Afin de suivre le comportement mécanique de ces travaux innovants, Cofiroute s'est rapproché de l'unité structures de l'ifsttar (Institut français des sciences et techniques des transports, de l'aménagement et des réseaux, ex LCPC) pour mettre au point l'instrumentation de deux de ces sections, au moyen de différents capteurs, placés dans les couches de chaussées. La première section instrumentée a été construite en 2009 et la seconde en Pour la dernière section, un système innovant de suivi à distance de l'ouvrage a été mis en

3 œuvre, en utilisant une plate- forme d'instrumentation appelée Pegase, mise au point au sein de l'ifsttar. [Page web] - La route intelligente devient une réalité au congrès ITS de Vienne A partir d'aujourd'hui, et pendant toute la semaine, Vienne va devenir la capitale mondiale du transport intelligent. La cité autrichienne accueille en effet le 19ème congrès mondial ITS. Cet évènement, qui va réunir personnes et qui va proposer à la fois une exposition et une quarantaine de démonstrations, concerne en partie l'automobile. Le congrès sera en effet l'occasion de montrer où en est la technologie de communication entre véhicules. Un concept en plein essor. route- intelligente- devient- une.html <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> [Page web] - A quoi ressemblera la «route intelligente» de demain? in L Expansion.com publié le 25/09/2009 La route de 5ème génération, capable de dialoguer avec les véhicules, verra le jour d'ici 10 à 20 ans. Le Laboratoire central des Ponts et Chaussées y travaille d'arrache- pied. tech/a- quoi- ressemblera- la- route- intelligente- de- demain_ html <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> [Page web] - Colloque : La route intelligente : utopie ou réalité? La route a tué 4274 personnes en France métropolitaine en Même si ce chiffre est en baisse constante depuis plusieurs années, il reste trop important. Pour réduire le nombre des accidents, on peut agir sur la vitesse, sur la sécurité, sur la fiabilité des voitures mais aussi sur la route. Le concept d une «route intelligente» fait son chemin depuis quelques années. Fini les pavés, les chemins de terre, les vieux asphaltes et place à la route de demain! Elle se veut intelligente et responsable. Cette route intelligente est au cœur des préoccupations des pouvoirs publics, motivés par les enjeux que représentent la sécurité routière, l optimisation des infrastructures existantes et l augmentation des services rendus aux usagers. On estime que la route intelligente pourrait réduire de 30 à 50% les accidents graves. Le concept de la route intelligente se doit de remplir plusieurs objectifs. route- intelligente.com/ <page consultée le 23 novembre 2012> Le coin des spécialistes Ouvrages Raol, J. Mobile intelligent autonomous systems, CRC Press, Going beyond the traditional field of robotics to include other mobile vehicles, Mobile Intelligent Autonomous Systems describes important theoretical concepts, techniques, approaches, and applications that can be used to build truly mobile intelligent autonomous systems (MIAS). It offers a comprehensive treatment of robotics and MIAS, as well as related disciplines, helping readers understand the subject from a system- theoretic and practical point of view. Organized into three sections, the book progresses from conceptual foundations to MIAS and robotics systems and then examines allied technologies Roess, R. Prassas, E. McShane, W. Traffic engineering, Lavoisier, Traffic Engineering, 4e, is ideal for a one/two- semester undergraduate survey, and/or for graduate courses on Traffic Engineering, Highway Capacity Analysis, and Traffic Control and Operations. This unique text focuses on the key engineering skills required to practice traffic engineering in a modern setting. It includes material on the latest standards and criteria of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, the Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, the Highway Capacity

4 Manual, and other critical references. It also presents both fundamental theory and a broad range of applications to modern problems. Disponible au Prêt- entre- Bibliothèque Button, K.J. Handbook of transport systems and traffic control, Pergamon Press, Transport is provided across a range of networks. These have grown with time as technology improvements and innovation have allowed individuals to develop new networks and refine systems that already exist. The past two hundred years in particular has seen real transformation, with steam power, the internal combustion engine and jet power revolutionizing transport. More recently, telecommunications has provided an alternative to travel and sometimes a complementary infrastructure that leads to increased travel. The current volume, the third in the acclaimed Handbooks in Transport series, is concerned with the broader nature of transport systems, and with the implementation of public policy across these systems. These are important issues at a time when problems such as urban traffic congestion, environmental intrusion, transport safety, and budgetary constraints are exercising the minds of policy makers. Disponible au Prêt- entre- Bibliothèque Buehler, M. ; Iagnemma, K. Singh, S. The Darpa urban challenge : autonomous vehicles in city traffic. Springer, This volume, edited by Martin Buehler, Karl Iagnemma and Sanjiv Singh, presents a unique and comprehensive collection of the scientific results obtained by finalist teams that participated in the DARPA Urban Challenge in November 2007, in the mock city environment of the George Air Force base in Victorville, California. This book is the companion of a previous volume by the same editors which was devoted to the Grand Challenge, which took place in the Nevada desert during October 2005, and was the second in the series of autonomous vehicle races sponsored by DARPA. The Urban Challenge demonstrated how cutting- edge perception, control, and motion planning techniques can allow intelligent autonomous vehicles not only to travel significant distances in off- road terrain, but also to operate in urban scenarios. Beyond the value for future military applications- - which motivated DARPA to sponsor the race- - the expected impact in the commercial sector for automotive manufacturers is equally, if not more, important: autonomous sensing and control constitute key technologies for vehicles of the future, and might help save thousands of lives that are now lost in traffic accidents. As with the previous STAR volume, the original papers collected in this book were initially published in special issues of the Journal of Field Robotics Disponible au service IST d Inria Grenoble Rhône- Alpes Articles Canudas De Wit. ; C. Ojeda, L.;. Kibangou A. Graph constrained- CTM observer design for the Grenoble south ring, 13th IFAC Symposium on Control in Transportation Systems, Sofia, Bulgaria, Sep 2012 An important problem in traffic estimation, forecasting, and control is the reconstruction of densities in portions of the road links not equipped with sensors. In this paper, and based on ideas from Morarescu and Canudas- de Wit [2011], we use a deterministic constrained model that reduces the number of possible affine dynamics of the system and preserves the number of vehicles in the network. In particular we reformulate the idea in Morarescu and Canudas- dewit [2011] with the correct number of feasible modes, and introduce the concept of graph constrained- CTM observer, which is used to reconstruct the densities from the Grenoble south ring use case that contains 45 cells organized in 9 links, and is simulated using a calibrated AISUM micro- simulator. This work is performed in connection with HYCON2 traffic show case ( and with the Grenoble Traffic Lab (GTL) (

5 Rodgers, JK. Intelligent Transportation Systems in International Journal of Electronics Communication and Computer Engineering (IJECCE), Vol. 3, Issue 5, 2012 This paper heading "Intelligent Transportation Systems", gives you an idea of how intercommunication between two vehicles or the traffic surrounding could reflect in a less congested and efficient traffic flow. The integration of a simple microchips into vehicles will provide information about that particular vehicle which would be communicated to the traffic. This information would be then used by another computer to prioritize and manage traffic in a far more efficient manner. Example: The information of an ambulance will be different from that of a car. This will be recorded by the computer and the priority levels will be set. Along with the sensors on the road and the vehicle information the computer enables free flow of traffic. This technology is certain to provide safety as well as intelligent management of traffic on the road _final.pdf Accessible en ligne Carlson, R.C., Papamichail, I., Papageorgiou, M. Local feedback- based main- stream traffic flow control on motorways using variable speed limits. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 12, pp , 2011 Recent research has proposed mainstream traffic flow control (MTFC), enabled via variable speed limits (VSLs), as a novel motorway traffic management tool and has demonstrated its efficiency based on sophisticated optimal control methods that may face difficulties in practical field implementations. A simple local MTFC feedback controller is designed in this paper, taking into account a number of practical requirements and restrictions. The MTFC controller relies only on readily available real- time measurements (no online model usage and no demand predictions are needed) and is therefore robust and suitable for field implementations. The controller is evaluated in simulation and compared with optimal control results. Despite its simplicity, the new controller s performance is shown to approach the optimal control results while considering several practical and safety restrictions for a number of investigated scenarios. Accessible via l abonnement Inria El Faouzi, NE. Leung, H. Kurian, A. Data fusion on intelligent transportation systems: progress and challenges A survey in Information fusion, vol. 12, n 1, pp. 4-10, january In intelligent transportation systems (ITS), transportation infrastructure is complimented with information and communication technologies with the objectives of attaining improved passenger safety, reduced transportation time and fuel consumption and vehicle wear and tear. With the advent of modern communication and computational devices and inexpensive sensors it is possible to collect and process data from a number of sources. Data fusion (DF) is collection of techniques by which information from multiple sources are combined in order to reach a better inference. DF is an inevitable tool for ITS. This paper provides a survey of how DF is used in different areas of ITS. Accessible via l abonnement Inria Kouvelas, A., Aboudolas, K., Papageorgiou, M., Kosmatopoulos, E.B.: A hybrid strategy for real- time traffic signal control of urban road networks. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 12,pp , The recently developed traffic signal control strategy known as traffic- responsive urban control (TUC) requires availability of a fixed signal plan that is sufficiently efficient under undersaturated traffic conditions. To drop this requirement, the well- known Webster procedure for fixed- signal control derivation at isolated junctions is appropriately employed for real- time operation based on measured flows. It is demonstrated via simulation experiments and field application that the following hold: 1)

6 The developed real- time demand- based approach is a viable real- time signal control strategy for undersaturated traffic conditions. 2) It can indeed be used within TUC to drop the requirement for a prespecified fixed signal plan. 3) It may, under certain conditions, contribute to more efficient results, compared with the original TUC method. Accessible via l abonnement Inria Wang, FY. Wang, K., Lin, WH., Xu, X. Data- driven intelligent transportation systems: a survey in IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, vol. 12, n 4, pp , dec For the last two decades, intelligent transportation systems (ITS) have emerged as an efficient way of improving the performance of transportation systems, enhancing travel security, and providing more choices to travelers. A significant change in ITS in recent years is that much more data are collected from a variety of sources and can be processed into various forms for different stakeholders. The availability of a large amount of data can potentially lead to a revolution in ITS development, changing an ITS from a conventional technology- driven system into a more powerful multifunctional data- driven intelligent transportation system (D 2 ITS) : a system that is vision, multisource, and learning algorithm driven to optimize its performance. Furthermore, D 2 ITS is trending to become a privacy- aware people- centric more intelligent system. In this paper, we provide a survey on the development of D 2 ITS, discussing the functionality of its key components and some deployment issues associated with D 2 ITS Future research directions for the development of D 2 ITS is also presented. Accessible via l abonnement Inria Dimitrakopoulos, G. Intelligent transportation systems in Vehicular Technology Magazine, IEEE, vol. 5, issue 1, pp , march The increasing need for mobility has brought about significant changes in transportation infrastructures. Inefficiencies cause enormous losses of time, decrease in the level of safety for both vehicles and pedestrians, high pollution, degradation of quality of life, and huge waste of nonrenewable fossil energy. The scope of this article is to introduce novel functionality for providing knowledge to vehicles, thus jointly managing traffic and safety. This will be achieved through the design of the proposed functionality, which, at a high level, will comprise (1) sensor networks formed by vehicles of a certain vicinity that exchange traffic- related information, (2) cognitive management functionality placed inside the vehicles for inferring knowledge and experience, and (3) cognitive management functionality in the overall transportation infrastructure. The goal of the aforementioned three main components shall be to issue directives to the drivers and the overall transportation infrastructure valuable in context handling. Accessible via l abonnement Inria Wang, Y., Coppola, P., Tzimitsi, A., Messmer, A., Papageorgiou, M., Nuzzolo, A. Real- time freeway network traffic surveillance: Large- scale field- testing results in southern Italy. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 12, pp , This paper reports on some large- scale field- testing results of a real- time freeway network traffic surveillance tool that has recently been developed to enable a number of real- time traffic surveillance tasks. This paper first introduces the related network traffic flow model and the approaches employed to traffic state estimation, traffic state prediction, and incident alarm. The field testing of the tool for these surveillance tasks in the A3 freeway of 100 km between Naples and Salerno in southern Italy is then reported in some detail. The results obtained are quite satisfactory and promising for further future implementations of the tool. Accessible via l abonnement Inria

7 Weiland, RJ ; Purser, LB. Intelligent transportation systems in Transportation in the New Millennium, In the 1980s, a small group of transportation professionals recognized the impact that the computing and communications revolutions of the Information Age could have on surface transportation. The idea of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) was born. This paper gives a very brief history of ITS, and a short summary of what remains to be done to increase the public acceptance of ITS. Accessible en ligne Zhao, Y. Mobile phone location determination and its impact on intelligent transportation systems in IEEE, Transactions on Intelligent transportation systems, vol. 1, issue 1, pp , mach Research and development on the technologies of locating the mobile (wireless) phone caller have been rapidly gaining momentum around the world. Once these technologies are mature enough to be deployed, they will have significant impact on automotive telematics and modern public transit systems. In this paper, we discuss why locating mobile phones becomes a hot topic among telecommunications giants, what technologies are being studied and standardized, when we are going to see the actual deployment, and what services they may provide? We then consider its potential impact on future intelligent transportation systems, including telematics and public transit systems. Many of us have already recognized how important a role the communications systems play in modern transportation. In the near future, if every mobile phone is able to determine its location, advances in our current transportation systems become inevitable Accessible via l abonnement Inria Papageorgiou, M. Automatic control methods in traffic and transportation. In Operations research and decision aid methodologies in traffic and transportation management, P. Toint, M. Labbe, K. Tanczos, & G. Laporte (Eds.), Springer- Verlag, The paper presents some basic notions and application procedures of Automatic Control and Optimisation methodologies, and outlines current and potential applications of these methodologies to traffic and transportation systems. After definition of some basic notions and control structures, a regulation problem is presented along with possible solution methods. Practical procedures when applying automatic control and optimisation methods in real- time are discussed in some detail. A comparison of common features and differences of various network process control problems is presented before proceeding to an outline of applications of Automatic Control and Optimisation methods to various transportation domains including motorways, urban road networks, automated highway systems, rail, air, and maritime traffic. Some general conclusions and promising future research topics are also provided.

8 Actes de Conférences Pisarski, D. Canudas de Wit, C. Optimal balancing of road traffic density distributions for the Cell transsmission model, 51th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC 2012). In this paper, we study the problem of optimal balancing of traffic density distributions. The optimization is carried out over the sets of equilibrium points for the Cell Transmission Traffic Model. The goal is to find the optimal balanced density distribution that maximizes the Total Travel Distance. The optimization is executed in two steps. At the first step, we consider a nonlinear problem to find a uniform density distribution that maximizes the Total Travel Distance. The second step is to solve the constrained quadratic problem to find the near balanced optimal equilibrium point. At both steps, we use decomposition methods. The quadratic optimization problem is solved by using the Dual Problem. The computational algorithms associated to such a problem are given Accessible en Open- Access via Hal Canudas de Wit, C. Best- effort highway traffic congestion control via variable speed limits, 50 th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control and European Control Conference (IEEE CDC- ECC 2011). The problem of controlling the congestion front in a single link road section is considered in this paper. For this purpose, we introduce a new variable- length two- cell lumped model composed of; one congested cell, and another in free flow. This model has the advantage of having few states while preserving the vehicle conservation property. This model is used as a basis to design a simple "best- effort" controller that regulates (at its best) the congestion front to some prespecified value. The control law can be implemented using only information about the congestion front position. ouvertes.fr/hal Accessible en Open- Access via Hal Papageorgiou, M., Diakaki, C., Dinopoulou, V., Kotsialos, A., & Wang, Y. Review of road traffic control strategies. Proceedings of the IEEE, 91(12), , Traffic congestion in urban road and freeway networks leads to a strong degradation of the network infrastructure and accordingly reduced throughput, which can be countered via suitable control measures and strategies. After illustrating the main reasons for infrastructure deterioration due to traffic congestion, a comprehensive overview of proposed and implemented control strategies is provided for three areas: urban road networks, freeway networks, and route guidance. Selected application results, obtained from either simulation studies or field implementations, are briefly outlined to illustrate the impact of various control actions and strategies. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of future needs in this important technical area. Accessible via l abonnement Inria Thèses Aubin, S. Capteurs de position innovants : application aux Systèmes de Transport Intelligents dans le cadre d'un observatoire de trajectoires de véhicules, Thèse, INRT, Toulouse, Améliorer la sécurité routière passe par une meilleure compréhension des causes d'accidents. Il est nécessaire de développer des observatoires discrets pour étudier la manière de conduire de tous les automobilistes. Une partie de cette analyse implique l'utilisation de capteurs mesurant les trajectoires des véhicules sur une portion de route. Deux capteurs innovants ont été crées pour pallier au manque de capteurs suffisamment précis : le premier est un capteur à fibres optiques présentant une succession de réseaux de Bragg et le second, protégé par un brevet, est fondé sur une technologie résistive. Ils ont été soumis à une expérimentation sur une route départementale. Le

9 capteur optique s'avère performant mais coûteux. Le deuxième n'est pas assez robuste mais présente des perspectives intéressantes. ouvertes.fr/tel Accessible en Open- Access via TEL Jacquet, D. Modélisation Macroscopique du Trafic et Contrôle des Lois de Conservation Non Linéaires Associées, Thèse INPG, Cette thèse traite de la modélisation des infrastructures autoroutières et de leur gestion par des méthodes de régulation telles que le contrôle d'accès. L'approche retenue est macroscopique et conduit à des modèles distribués sous forme d'équations aux dérivées partielles non linéaires. Nous apportons plusieurs éclairages sur l'analyse et la résolution de ces modèles (condition d'entropie pour les rampes d'accès, discrétisation simplifiée) et proposons une interprétation hybride des inhomogénéités (conditions aux limites, rampes d'accès et de sorties, variations brutales des paramètres) adaptée aux problèmes de contrôle. Deux nouvelles méthodologies calculatoires sont ensuite introduites pour concevoir des contrôleurs dynamiques s'appliquant à la gestion du trafic. La première est formulée comme un problème de commande optimale en boucle ouverte et nécessite l'adaptation de la méthode adjointe traditionnelle en raison de l'irrégularité des solutions. La seconde repose sur une discrétisation sous la forme d'un système affine commuté et une synthèse boucle fermée utilisant la dissipativité et les inégalités matricielles linéaires. ouvertes.fr/tel Accessible en Open- Access via TEL Lemarchand, A. Modélisation multi- modèle incertaine du trafic routier et suivi robuste de profils optimaux aux entrées des voies périurbaines, Thèse, Grenoble INP, Ce document synthétise mes travaux de thèse de doctorat en Automatique Productique à Grenoble INP (Institut National Polytechnique), thèse préparée au sein du département automatique du laboratoire GIPSA- lab (Grenoble Image Parole Signal et Automatique). Ce travail s inscrit dans le cadre du contrôle local et de la supervision des systèmes de trafic routier. Les principales contributions portent sur la modélisation, la supervision et la commande locale des systèmes de trafic routier. La contribution apportée à la modélisation du trafic est l ajout d un modèle d incertitude sur le modèle CTM (Cell Transmission Model [Daganzo, 1994]). Ce nouveau modèle permet de prendre en compte les incertitudes sur différents paramètres du modèle pour in- fine proposer de nouvelles stratégies de commandes commutées robustes. Outre cette approche de modélisation, nous proposons un niveau de supervision permettant d une part d estimer en temps réel le mode de fonctionnement et d autre part de détecter, localiser et estimer certaines fautes sur le système. L estimation dynamique de mode de fonctionnement nous permet de connaître l état de congestion (ou de non- congestion) de l aménagement routier considéré. Nous sommes en mesure de détecter des fautes telles que des chutes de vitesse ou des chutes de capacité survenant sur la route. Enfin, nous proposons deux lois de commandes locales basées sur la théorie des systèmes à commutations. Ainsi, le schéma de contrôle s adaptera dynamique mentaux changements de propriétés du système. Ces lois de commande ont pour objet de s insérer dans un schéma de régulation hiérarchique.