Architecture et Facilities Management. La conception face à la montée des services

Transcription

1 Architecture et Facilities Management. La conception face à la montée des services SOMMAIRE Introduction Le Facilities Management, une activité de service aux formes multiples Realising stakeholder benefit through the facilities value chain Le Facility Management essentiel aux PPP Services d efficacité énergétique dans le cadre de l offre FM Le FM, une activité au service de la conception? Organisation de projet et chaîne de valeur Optimising Added Value in Facilities Management through Value Chain Management Architecture et Urbanisme : L'impact du "facility management" sur l'organisation et les métiers de la conception et des services Le PPP, approche contractualisée de la conception en coût global Les usagers, ressource et destinataires du projet Restructuring of Building and Facilities management based on the influence of end user preferences, - preliminary results of a current research project Evidence-based workplace design and the role of end-user participation Le FM, un concept à préciser Attention! There are users in the facilities La montée des services : risques et opportunités pour les acteurs de la conception La conception architecturale : entre exigences managériales et usages Public procurement: rewarding architects for life cycle thinking ANNEXES Energy efficiency services within the frame of FM s offer Architecture and urban planning: the impact of "facility management" on design and service organisation and professions PPP, a contractual approach to global cost design Architectural design: between management requirements and usages

2 INTRODUCTION Michael Fenker et François Lautier, LET, ENSAPLV, organisation scientifique 1 Resituer Les deux ateliers internationaux organisés portent sur des changements structurels en cours dans l organisation de certains projets, marqués par de nouveaux modes de relation entre Mog et Moe, de nouveaux intervenants dans le processus, de nouveaux processus. En novembre, les PPP et les questions qu entraînaient leur diffusion, avec cette conséquence ou ce présupposé qu un bâtiment ou un équipement ne sont pas produits pour leur utilisateur, mais pour les services que l on pourra vendre à cet utilisateur. Avec toutes les modifications de point de vue et de paradigme d action qui en découlent. Le FM partage cette problématique. On peut même dire que, comme «modèle organisationnel», antérieur aux politiques de PFI-PPP, le FM en a été un facilitateur, voire un initiateur. Il avait déjà mis en place la relation de service comme fondement de l existence, et donc de la conception, des bâtiments et des équipements. L objet de l atelier est d expliciter et de comparer les modalités et les effets des transformations qu induit l émergence du FM sur la conception, les coopérations, les objets eux-mêmes (aménagements, édifices, etc.), lors des projets architecturaux auxquels il participe. Et, si possible, de dégager à partir de là des orientations de recherche. 2 Questions de départ Cet objet, nous avons cherché à le développer à partir de quelques questions essentielles à nos yeux. Les activités et les services que le FM prend en charge ont longtemps été de la responsabilité directe des entreprises et organisations qui en sont devenues des clientes. Celles-ci faisaient appel, lorsque nécessaire, à divers fournisseurs de biens ou de services. Les démarches du FM modifient les termes de la relation client-fournisseurs. Le FM tend alors à devenir une activité autonome et, quelque soit la diversité des formes qu il prend, il semble que cette activité établisse un marché propre. Cette évolution ne conduit-elle pas dans une certaine mesure à inverser la relation offre/demande? Si au départ ce sont les clients qui se placent dans la nécessité de recourir à des structures de FM, ce sont finalement celles-ci qui se voient dans l obligation de développer leur offre, élargissant aussi bien la gamme des services qu elles veulent rendre que les clients qu elles servent. En position d offre, deviennentelles, plus ou moins directement, des prescripteurs en matière de bâtiments, d équipements et de services associés? Le cas échéant, jusqu où et sous quelles formes s insèrent-elles alors dans la conception? 211

3 L externalisation d un certain nombre d activités et d équipements conduit à en contractualiser le service, jusque là interne. Tout un ensemble d études et de procédures président à la rédaction des contrats régissant les relations entre FM et organisations clientes. Si elles introduisent des coûts de transaction qui doivent être pris en compte, ces modalités contraignantes apportent pour contrepartie une analyse plus fine des équipements, des services et de leur valeur pour l organisation donneuse d ordres. Les définitions préalables des objets à concevoir et de leurs performances peuvent ainsi devenir des éléments contractuels, avec tous les effets que cela induit sur les conditions et les moyens de leur conception. Quels impacts de ces nouvelles pratiques, de ces nouveaux points de vue et des nouveaux intervenants qui en sont porteurs et acteurs sur les acteurs et les pratiques de la conception et sur les organisations de projet? Le FM s intéresse aux usages pour assurer le meilleur service aux organisations clientes. La prise en compte des objectifs de l organisation commanditaire lors de la conception des édifices ou aménagements n est évidemment pas une nouveauté. Le FM, en se substituant ou en s ajoutant aux modes de programmation habituels, apporte cependant deux dimensions supplémentaires : d une part, il a développé un appareil méthodologique conséquent proposant une appréciation rationalisée des moyens à mettre en œuvre pour atteindre ces objectifs, en intégrant notamment les préoccupations des utilisateurs finaux ; d autre part, il propose dans ce domaine une véritable gestion, appuyée sur la capitalisation de références et d expériences, capable d anticipation et disposant d instruments de mesure des aspects économiques. Le dialogue entre les concepteurs et l organisation ainsi médiatisé par le FM peut en être profondément modifié. De nouvelles coopérations doivent aussi s établir entre le FM et les concepteurs, dès lors que la prise en compte de la durée de l équipement, les coûts de fonctionnement et de maintenance et l ensemble des facteurs relevant du FM ainsi que ses critères propres deviennent prépondérants dans les exigences du projet. Aussi bien dans ses structures que dans ses activités, le FM présente, nous l avons rappelé, une grande diversité. Principalement dans les pays anglo-saxons, des organisations professionnelles bien structurées (IFMA, BCFM, etc.) se sont formées développant des outils et des procédures spécifiques, des formations professionnelles et universitaires, des certifications, etc. On peut donc interroger cette diversité, aussi bien dans ce qui l unifie que dans ce qui la divise ou, du moins, la différentie. S agit-il d une profession et d un métier, entrant en composition avec ceux qui concourent depuis longtemps à la conception des équipements et des aménagements, ou bien d un marché où s affrontent des entreprises, supposant certes des compétences, mais sans identité particulière? Cette question entraîne celle des perspectives du FM. Tend-il à élargir son champ de pratiques, à quels nouveaux domaines, avec quels acteurs? Devient-il un modèle commun ou demeure-t-il marginal? Comment s articule-t-il aux professions de la conception : tend-il à s y substituer, cherche-t-il à les dominer ou à en valoriser les ressources et les compétences? 3 Les intervenants Comme pour le précédent atelier, nous avons souhaité que puisse s opérer un double croisement : d une part entre chercheurs, «academics» dit-on Outre-Manche, et praticiens. Parmi ceux-ci certains sont consultants, d autres ont des responsabilités de 212

4 FMeur en entreprise. Et puis, ne serait-ce que pour nous permettre de mieux connaître l expérience qu ils ont acquise, des personnes venant de 3 pays d Europe, la Grande Bretagne, les Pays Bas et la Suède, et d un pays d Amérique, le Canada, ont bien voulu se joindre à nous. Nous savons bien que dans les divers pays le FM ne se développe pas tout à fait de la même façon et a donc des effets quelque peu différents. L intérêt de la mise en commun des expériences et des doctrines n en est que plus manifeste. La qualité de ces intervenants ne doit cependant pas laisser seulement admiratifs les autres participants à l atelier. Il s agit bien au contraire que d autres points de vue s expriment, que d autres expériences soient apportées, qui complètent, parfois amendent voire contredisent les communications. Encore peu discutées, du moins en France, les questions que nous aborderons durant ces deux jours méritent de vrais débats. 4 Le déroulement des deux journées Cette première matinée sera l occasion de situer le FM dans l ensemble des acteurs qui nous concernent. A travers la diversité de ses pratiques et modalités organisationnelles, quels sont les principes qui lui ont donné un statut d activité de service autonome et de plus en plus reconnue comme telle? Quelles sont les exigences dont il est porteur, à quels positionnements cela le conduit-il entre l amont des processus de production des bâtiments et des équipements où il lui faut intervenir et la nécessité, à l aval, de satisfaire les utilisateurs? Antoine Lainé, qui a mené de front et avec succès une activité de praticien et une pratique d enseignement, sans compter quelques responsabilités dans des organisations professionnelles, sera l animateur/debatteur de cette matinée. L après midi cherchera à distinguer ce que le point de vue propre du FM, ou les différents points de vue qui s y côtoient, parfois en se frictionnant quelque peu, et encore ses méthodes, induisent dans l organisation des projets auxquels il participe et dont il peut avoir la direction. Comment les objets, les outils, les enjeux qui sont les siens interfèrent-ils avec ceux des autres concepteurs, maîtres d ouvrage et maîtres d oeuvre? Les professionnels de la conception peuvent-ils aujourd hui échapper à ses préoccupations, aux injonctions qu il arrête, qu elles soient formellement exprimées ou sous-jacentes? Merci à Wim Pullen qui lui aussi a exercé comme praticien et comme chercheur, d avoir accepté d animer cette après midi. Demain matin, l atelier se focalisera sur les usagers, utilisateurs, destinataires des projets, en ce qu ils en sont aussi, de ce fait, une ressource majeure. Si la question des usages n est pas nouvelle pour les concepteurs, le FM y apporte un appareil méthodologique conséquent, permettant une autre appréciation des moyens à mettre en œuvre pour optimiser la liaison entre usages et conception. Quels besoins pour quels usagers retient-on alors? De quelle façon cette manière de prendre en compte des usages a-t-elle un effet sur les pratiques de conception? Quelle place est donnée aux usagers dans le processus? Les concepteurs sont-ils mieux en relation avec eux? Les communications et la discussion seront sous la chaleureuse direction de Keith Alexander, dont chacun sait le pilier de la recherche et de l action en matière de FM qu il est depuis longtemps. C est à Thérèse Evette, directrice scientifique du Let et responsable du secrétariat du réseau Ramau, qu échouera la responsabilité de stimuler l après midi de conclusion. Il 213

5 s agira de se recentrer sur les acteurs de la conception et, à partir de là, dans cette direction là, d esquisser si possible quelques orientations pour les recherches à venir. A l instar du FM, les acteurs de la conception sont confrontés à une focalisation croissante sur la pertinence économique et sociale des ouvrages bâtis. Leurs activités se complexifient et nécessitent des expertises plus pointues. Quelle position adoptent ils vis-à-vis des savoirs et des pratiques du FM? Quelles nouvelles divisions du travail et quelles nouvelles formes de coopérations développent-ils? Comment se répartit la rémunération des services rendus et de la valeur ajoutée? Si de nouvelles coopérations doivent s établir, les concepteurs tendent-ils à s allier, se différencier ou se détourner des domaines où le FM a accumulé des expériences et des compétences significatives, par exemple des compétences gestionnaires et procédurales? 5 Rappel des enjeux Un dernier mot. Il était bien sûr nécessaire d organiser quelque peu ces deux journées et de donner à chaque session un axe autour duquel regrouper les communications des intervenants. Cependant, il est probable que les différents thèmes s entrecroiseront, tant il est difficile et serait même vain de les séparer de façon mécanique. L intérêt d un atelier comme celui-ci est aussi de laisser venir ce qui pourra surgir entre les cases qui ont permis son organisation. Nous voudrions à ce propos insister sur un point. La dernière après midi est à nos yeux essentielle. En effet, ce qui anime le réseau Ramau et donne sa raison d être à cet atelier n est pas l existence, la nature ou les méthodes du FM. Notre objet ce sont bien les activités et les métiers de l architecture et de l urbanisme. Les deux ateliers que Ramau a organisés, sur les PPP au mois de novembre, animé par Elisabeth Campagnac, puis celui-ci, ont la même intention : mieux comprendre les évolutions qu induit la montée des services, comme modèle organisationnel mais aussi comme modèle culturel, dans la conception, chez ses acteurs, dans les objets qu elle étudie ; et à partir de là dégager des perspectives de recherche qui répondent aux interrogations des praticiens comme des chercheurs. Merci de participer à ce projet. 214

6 LE FACILITIES MANAGEMENT, UNE ACTIVITE DE SERVICE AUX FORMES MULTIPLES 215

7 Realising stakeholder benefit through the facilities value chain Professor Keith Alexander Director Centre for Facilities Management University of Salford United Kingdom Abstract This paper addresses the value added by facilities management (FM) seen as an integrated, managed service to enhance the effectiveness of organisations. It draws upon recent research, supporting European standardisation in FM (in the context of the emerging European market for FM services), to introduce a framework for developing FM agreements and to identify whole life processes to ensure that facilities and services are continuously tuned to an organisation s (changing) strategic objectives. The framework enables consideration of the value added throughout the facilities value chain and to assess the role of key stakeholders. The paper provides a critical appraisal of methods, tools and techniques for value management and to enable a focus on achieving intended benefits. Three (UK based) FM case studies are presented, using advanced methods for appraising stakeholder benefit and for achieving whole life value. The paper addresses the implications of the development of FM for the design and management of buildings (and services), for changing relationships amongst service partners (including designers) and for FM organisations. Introduction The paper draws upon a number of action research projects, carried out in the past two years, in which the Centre for Facilities Management has had direct involvement. These projects suggest the need for reframing the basic tenets of facilities management to address issues that arise when organisations are seen in an urban context and sustainability is a key criterion. The paper lays out key concepts stakeholder theory, benefits realisation, the facilities value chain and FM processes - and introduces the action research projects in outline as background to the presentation of three case studies at the workshop. Key concepts Facilities management is defined in EN15221: Part 1, 2006, Facility Management: terms and definitions as the integration of processes within an organisation to maintain and develop the agreed services which support and improve the effectiveness of primary 216

8 activities. Similar facilities management thinking can be applied to support communities, rather than organisations, at different urban scales. The stakeholders in an organisation are the individuals and constituencies that contribute, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to its wealth-creating capacity and activities, and that are therefore its potential beneficiaries and/or risk bearers. Stakeholder analysis is an instrumental theory of an organisation, integrating a resourcebased with a market-based view, and adding a socio-political dimension (Freeman, 1984). Stakeholder analysis defines the specific stakeholders of a corporation (the normative theory (Donaldson, 1995) of stakeholder identification) as well as examining the conditions under which these parties should be treated as stakeholders (the descriptive theory of stakeholder salience, (Mitchell, 1997)). Identifying stakeholders, building relationships amongst them and defining their objectives is essential to ensure they all derive full benefit. It is a continuing responsibility for a facilities management programme to meet requirements, resolve conflicting demands and achieve an appropriate balance of benefits. Benefits management aims to make sure that desired business change or policy outcomes have been clearly defined, are measurable, and provide a compelling case for investment and ultimately to ensure that the change or policy outcomes are actually achieved. The focus is on outcomes, which may include achieving policy goals, providing explicit benefits, improving service excellence and satisfying different stakeholder objectives. Any programme of change requires a constant focus on the intended benefits if it is to deliver value and remain aligned with business goals. Because programmes are concerned with outcomes, whereas projects focus on outputs or deliverables, benefits realisation typically requires business and organisational understanding more than specific project management technical skills. Effective transition management (embedding change in operational business) requires that the anticipated benefits and measurement approach must be agreed with stakeholders from the earliest point and confirmed in the business case, while actually realising the benefits normally extends beyond the formal closure of the programme itself. Benefits Management is therefore a process that starts prior to project initiation and continues until the planned benefits are delivered to the organisation and/or its stakeholders. In this context project management becomes a key success factor within a formal end-to-end process of benefits management. Sapountzis et al (2007) have developed the framework for the benefits realisation process for primary healthcare. CFM contributed to the development of the framework, 217

9 focusing on facilities management processes, identifying regeneration outcomes and ensuring community empowerment and engagement. Added value Delivering value begins with defining the expected high-level outcomes before a programme is approved and continues through the identification, profiling, tracking and embedding of benefits. This also involves assessing risk against the proposed outcome to confirm how value can best be achieved. Effective management of the benefits, across several programmes or projects, allows management to make strategic adjustments in resources and ensures that the programme(s) continue(s) to contribute to strategic objectives in a changing environment. This could lead to reprioritising or revising the scope of some projects, or terminating them. It can also provide an opportunity to re-deploy resources freed up through the efficiencies being delivered, to derive new benefits in flight and to minimise unwanted side effects. A value chain is a chain of processes and activities (Porter, 1985). Services and products pass all activities of the chain in order and at each activity the service or product gains some value. The chain of activities gives services and products greater added value than the sum of added values of all activities. Describing the facilities value chain, allows the generic value-adding processes and activities of a facilities organisation to be identified. The costs and value drivers are identified for each value activity. The value chain framework is a powerful analysis tool for strategic planning. Its ultimate goal is to maximise value creation while minimising costs. The ability of facilities management to understand, improve and develop processes, manage relationships and integrate the facilities value chain, to add value to the benefit of all stakeholders can be seen as facilities management leverage. A number of authors have attempted to quantify the value added, most notably through development of a ratio (Evans, 2004, Hughes, 2004, Ive, 2006). European standardisation Efforts to improve facilities management competencies, to identify robust and reliable methods and tools and to develop the European market for facilities services, underlie the standardisation effort being undertaken by CEN. Two standards have already been published, and four more are currently being developed for delivery by the end of EN : Facility Management: terms and definitions identifies general principles and sets out the basic concepts of Facility Management to provide integrated management on a strategic and tactical level, in order to coordinate the provision of the agreed support services. Emphasis of the standard is placed on the client orientation and 218

10 the provision integrated management at a strategic and tactical level. A process-based, management systems approach underlies the definition in the standard. EN : Guidance on FM agreements was produced in order to enable and encourage consistency in the development of contract agreements between parties regarding the delivery of FM services. The standard has been developed on the basis that it can be used in the public or private sectors, and indeed can be used within an organisation where it can profile the responsibilities of the in-house team. The four new facilities management standards have adopted an agreed set of basic management principles quality management systems, quality control and value chain - to ensure consistency. Further development of European standards in facilities management will rely on a better understanding of the processes involved and mechanisms for their integration. These processes are identified and described, structured, mapped and modelled to produce a generic protocol for facilities management. The intended focus on demand in the standards underlines the client orientation of Facility Management. For each type of client demand the standard provided examples of services that respond to these demands, to illustrate the scope of Facility Management. Due to the complexity and the changing markets, client demands are subject to change. Action research projects Regeneration is a comprehensive and integrated action which brings about a lasting improvement in the economic, physical, social and environmental condition of an area. Direct involvement of communities in the ownership and management of neighbourhood facilities, in delivering services to support the community, and the development of new model for Community-based Facilities Management, can all make a vital contribution to creating sustainable communities. Communities in the North West of England are amongst the most socially deprived and environmentally declined parts in Europe. Best practice found and lessons learned in regeneration of these communities would bring tremendous benefits to the country and the whole of Europe. European funding has enabled Centre for Facilities Management (CFM) and Construct IT to contribute to the UK Government s sustainable communities agenda in the North West. CFM has located its community-based FM activities in regeneration initiatives, eg. at One Central Park in North Manchester, to work at the interface with business, industry, universities and the community. Related postgraduate studies with communities in Blackburn, East Lancashire has sought to assess levels of community engagement in housing renewal and to identify regeneration skills gap. CONNECT NW 219

11 This project aims to deliver new employment and assist small businesses in property, housing management, cleaning and facilities management four elements of asset skills. It focuses on creating and developing opportunities for community involvement in regional regeneration activities. The project works with four housing market renewal pathfinder areas: Central Salford, East/North Manchester, East Lancashire and Oldham/Rochdale. Urban regeneration: making a difference This project supports the UK government s call for a common goal and understanding of sustainable communities, and seeks to demonstrate how universities are well-placed to provide a neutral forum to engage and facilitate effective solutions, building mutually beneficial partnerships across a diverse range of stakeholders and encouraging a continuous two-way exchange of knowledge. Managing community assets through social enterprise This phased project will develop, promote and support engagement in the ownership and management of community facilities and in the delivery of services that supports their effective use, as a means of generating measurable community benefit. The project will deliver organisational support and training to create new employment and assist new small business in asset skills (property, housing management, cleaning and facilities management). It will foster social enterprise through an innovation network comprising action learning sets, through an existing ERDF funded network in four Housing Market Renewal (HMR) pathfinder areas in the North West, extended to the North East to include Newcastle/Gateshead. Case studies The presentation will introduce three case studies as examples of community involvement in the management of community facilities to address issues of social sustainability: Smart FM - North City Library, Harpurhey Community assets - Unique Enterprise Centre, Rochdale Sustainable facilities - St Peter s Health and Leisure Centre, Burnley References Alexander, K and Brown, M, (2006), Community-based Facilities Management, Facilities, Volume 24, Numbers 7-8, pp ; Donaldson, T., Preston, L.E. (1995), The stakeholder theory of the corporation: concepts, evidence and implications, Academy of Management Review, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Vol. 20 No.1, pp.65-91; 220

12 Evans,R, Haryott, R, Haste, N and Jones, A, (2004). The long-term costs of owning and using buildings, in Sebastian Macmillan: Designing Better Buildings: Quality and Value in the Built Environment. Taylor & Francis, 42 50; Freeman, R E, (1984), Strategic Management: A stakeholder approach, Boston: Pitman. Hughes, W, Ancell, D, Gruneberg, S and Hirst, L, (2004). Exposing the myth of the 1:5:200 ratio relating initial cost, maintenance and staffing costs of office buildings, in Proceedings 20th Annual ARCOM Conference, 1 3 September 2004, Edinburgh, UK, pp : Ive, G, (2006), Re-examining the costs and value ratios of owning and occupying buildings, Building Research and Information, Vol 34 No 3, May 2006, pp ; Mitchell, R K., B R Agle, and D J Wood. (1997). Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What really Counts. Academy of Management Review 22(4): Porter, M E, (1985), Competitive Advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance, Free Press: New York; Sapountziz, S, Harris, K and Kagioglou, M, (2007), Benefits realisation process for healthcare, HACRIC, Salford University; 221

13 Le Facility Management essentiel aux PPP Roland Khoury et Jacques Troccon Algoé Consultants Les savoir-faire acquis en Facility Management concourent fortement à la faisabilité de ces projets mais la prégnance des enjeux impose encore des progrès et des transformations rapides. Introduction La récupération des acquis du Facility Management par les tenants des projets de type PPP a été rapide car ils conditionnent leur maîtrise si ce n est leur existence même : Vision globale et long terme des ouvrages et de leur fonctionnement en termes d efficacité fonctionnelle et économique, Attention portée aux besoins de l usager dès la conception, Interfaçages impératifs entre conception, construction, exploitation et gros entretien-renouvellement, Reconnaissance du poids économique majeur que le champ Facility Management impacte, Aptitude à la contractualisation du service, pertinence de l engagement de résultat En cela, le Facility Management a d ores et déjà transformé les méthodes et processus de programmation, de conception et d établissement d offres de service. Mais pris au piège de la reconnaissance de ses points forts, le savoir-faire Facility Management est maintenant sollicité au-delà de son champ d action initial. Et pour aider les maîtres d ouvrage à mieux définir les axes fondateurs des projets qu ils engagent, et pour répondre à leur angoisse de maîtrise du processus global, sur souvent plus de 30 années Le Facility Management est attendu plus particulièrement sur sa capacité à éclairer la réflexion transversale Tous Corps d Etat, confrontée à l optimisation économique sur le long terme mais aussi à répondre au plus vite aux challenges actuels, exemple HQE Pour éclairer ce positionnement et la criticité des réponses attendues, il nous faut développer : En phase amont de conception des projets, la contribution Facility Management à la définition du programme, L enjeu économique des dépenses d exploitation maintenance, La capacité à étudier ex-ante la performance globale d un projet PPP présenté par une entreprise à un stade APS seulement, mais dans le cadre d une offre forfaitaire sur 30 ans et à animer les dialogues, 222

14 Le besoin crucial de compétences nouvelles au sein des maîtrises d ouvrage, tant en phase d émergence des projets qu en suivi des contrats PPP en résultant. 1. Contribution des savoir-faire Facility Management à la programmation des projets Au-delà du bon usage des acquis FM, en terme de définition de service aux usagers (qu il est facile de transposer car ils sont le plus souvent déjà finalisés en cahier des charges), de nouvelles sollicitations apparaissent : Vérification des programmes fonctionnels, optimisation des flux en phase d exploitation, anticipation du fonctionnement futur, Définition des résultats attendus d une bonne exploitation technique et maintenance en liaison avec les choix techniques des concepteurs (exit la définition des moyens nécessaires à leur obtention), Cadrage du volet GER (Gros Entretien - Renouvellement), ce qui s avère critique : à la fois par le fait que la vision à 30 ans des durées de vie des ouvrages et matériaux est difficile, peu consolidée par les Facility Managers aujourd hui car le plus souvent intégrés à des projets de rénovations traités ailleurs et sans eux, à la fois par la maturité des entreprises du marché qui, par leur expérience en concessions internationales, savent s engager forfaitairement sur ces durées. A noter que sur ce volet, il ne s agit pas d imposer une vision d expertise par l établissement unilatéral d un plan technique de renouvellement mais de développer un processus d optimisation croisée au profit des deux parties. Projection des dépenses en fluides et énergies qui sont la conséquence de choix d équipements des concepteurs, là encore challengé par le savoirfaire des entreprises spécialistes en avance sur leurs donneurs d ordre sur ces aspects 2. L enjeu économique des dépenses FM, d exploitation maintenance en particulier Les benchmarks FM ont fortement contribué à la prise de conscience de l importance du budget Exploitation Maintenance en regard de l amortissement des bâtiments : 50/50 quand on analyse sur 30 ans (à quelques % près). 223

15 Les cost-killers auraient pu s en donner à cœur joie. Mais l exercice s avère complexe car les corrélations Construction/Exploitation sont permanentes. Affaire de spécialiste d abord, de généraliste ensuite. Car il nous faut contrebalancer : le poids économique de chacun des postes Maintenance courante / GER / Fluides et Energies / Propreté déchets (à quelques euros près). Chacun de ces postes atteignent souvent 15 à 20.an.HT/m² HO, total 70 à 80.an.HT/m² HO, avec celui des ouvrages construits : il s agit d un budget de 50 ou 60.an.HT/m² HO, tous corps d état confondus, en amortissement annuel sur 30 ans. Ce quasi équilibre économique entre construction et exploitation a entrainé de fait la reconnaissance du savoir-faire en Facility Management, mais interpelle aujourd hui fortement sur la capacité à définir puis rechercher le meilleur rapport qualité-prix. Le phantasme du coût global des années 1970 s est transformé très très vite en réalité prégnante : Etudier la rentabilité de choisir un revêtement scellé à la place de sols souples, est devenu un exercice habituel ; idem pour la décision de recourir aux énergies nouvelles 3. Capacité à étudier ex-ante la performance d un APS! La démarche PPP a imposé aux entreprises candidates de présenter un projet étudié en quelques semaines sur la base d un programme fonctionnel, projet pour lequel ils doivent proposer un engagement forfaitaire en coût construction et exploitation maintenance sur 30 années. Ils le font depuis plusieurs années avec grand professionnalisme. Reste maintenant aux Maîtres d Ouvrage à analyser la performance globale de ces projets : les méthodes et outils de comparaison des procédés constructifs et de leurs coûts directs, en vigueur précédemment, s avèrent périmés : ils ne traitent que la moitié de la dépense de conception & construction, alors que l autre moitié d exploitation & maintenance est corrélée à la première! Nous sommes confrontés au besoin de développer de nouvelles analyses, d identifier des indicateurs de performance globale sur base de critères transversaux : un savoirfaire essentiel pour le choix de la meilleure offre sur la base d un APS. Ces mêmes méthodes, couplées à une analyse ex-post des résultats atteints (de type benchmarking qualité & coût) devront constituer alors des outils de maîtrise sur la durée dont le besoin s avère crucial. 224

16 4. Nouvelles compétences au sein des maîtrises d ouvrage Toutes ces pistes de progrès, sur lesquelles les entreprises du marché ont largement investi à ce jour, semblent encore très nouvelles pour les Maîtrises d Ouvrage. D autant plus que, au-delà du besoin d assistance de spécialités, nous voyons qu elles interrogent les Maîtrises d Ouvrage dans leur capacité de généraliste, certains diraient d architecte, si on retient la définition large et noble de ce métier. En sus des points évoqués ci-dessus, de nouveaux challenges viennent encore renforcer ces attentes : En émergence de projets, quand il s agit d étudier les préfaisabilités avec ce questionnement transversal et global, En phase dialogue, savoir débattre, en direct avec les candidats, entre objectifs, attentes et solutions proposés, En analyse HQE, se positionner en synthèse des éléments techniques et économiques, inciter à l optimisation des fluides et énergies dont on reconnaît seulement aujourd hui l importance mais qui va se traduire très vite par des résultats d ampleur, En maîtrise sur le long terme, savoir rester vigilant, mesurer et interpréter les résultats obtenus sur ces projets pour piloter de tels contrats, confrontés à l obsolescence et à l émergence de nouvelles technologies, mais aussi et tout simplement, aux évolutions quotidiennes des cœurs de métier des usagers! Addition, mais surtout intégration de ces compétences, c est sans doute le challenge immédiat des Maîtrises d Ouvrage. 225

17 Services d efficacité énergétique dans le cadre de l offre FM Orlando CATARINA / Laboratoire Services, Process, Innovation, CSTB Introduction Le bâtiment constitue un gisement considérable de diminution des émissions de gaz à effet de serre. «Le secteur du bâtiment et plus largement l environnement de la ville semblent déjà pouvoir constituer une des clés permettant de résoudre le défi environnemental d une division par 4 des émissions de gaz à effet de serre à l horizon 2050» 1. Par ailleurs, l augmentation du coût de l énergie favorise depuis peu l émergence du concept de financement des investissements d efficacité énergétique par les économies générées et du mécanisme vertueux de réinvestissement des économies d énergie. Nous posons que les enjeux énergétiques vont transformer profondément les méthodes et les processus de gestion des bâtiments, ainsi que les modalités d actions des différents intervenants et leurs relations. De nouveaux dispositifs vont émerger, notamment des services d efficacité énergétique avec garantie de performance. Ils sont notamment portés par les sociétés de services en efficacité énergétique (SS2E) qui, dans le même temps, élargissent leur champ au Facility Management. 1. Articulation entre services d efficacité energétique et FM dans le contexte français Le paysage français des services énergétiques est très marqué par les SS2E qui se sont développées à partir de prestations associées aux équipements énergétiques dès le début du XXe siècle. Ces sociétés exercent une activité de service consistant à prendre en charge le fonctionnement complet des installations climatiques. Avec l externalisation des patrimoines immobiliers et des fonctions supports, elles sont au cœur du développement du FM, se transforment en profondeur et se positionnent de plus en plus comme des opérateurs globaux de gestion technique et administrative, de service aux bâtiments et aux occupants, de travaux et d assistance. Les SS2E poursuivent ainsi une stratégie de diversification et d intégration. On parle d ailleurs de plus en plus de Property Facility Managers (PFM) pour qualifier cette nouvelle offre. Les prestations auxquelles les sociétés de service en efficacité énergétique sont le plus directement identifiées sont les contrats historiques d exploitation d équipements qui combinent des activités de conduite d installations et d entretien courant, de fourniture d énergie et de travaux. La garantie de résultat des travaux et des actions de rénovation énergétique qui y est attachée s exerce alors à travers la rémunération forfaitaire de la fourniture d énergie à la charge du même prestataire. Cette garantie est non seulement assise sur le volume d énergie économisée, mais aussi sur le prix de vente du kwh qui fait partie de la négociation contractuelle. Bien sûr, ces contrats d exploitation ne constituent pas leur unique modèle économique. Les SS2E (Sociétés de Service d Efficacité Energétique) interviennent 1 Le Grenelle de l Environnement, Septembre 2007, Rapport du groupe 1 «Lutter contre les changements climatiques et maîtriser la demande d énergie», 226

18 également dans d autres dispositifs, comme dans le Facility Management ou dans les contrats de partenariat, où elles prennent notamment en charge le fonctionnement des ouvrages en garantissant la qualité contractuelle du service. C est en effet par l intermédiaire de l exploitant que l opérateur d un contrat de partenariat est présent jusqu à la fin de son engagement et qu il est possible de qualifier ce dispositif de contrat global. Pourtant, le prestataire FM est rarement leader dans ce genre de montage où c est généralement l entreprise de construction qui est mise en avant alors que la livraison du bâtiment est une activité bien plus éphémère. Par contre, quand la finalité d un contrat de partenariat est la rénovation énergétique, la SS2E devient alors l acteur clé qui peut prendre en charge à la fois les prestations de conception, de réalisation et d exploitation des installations, avec toutefois des limites car elle intervient rarement sur l enveloppe. 2. Potentiel et difficultés de mise en œuvre des services d efficacité énergétique Le FM, qu il soit interne ou externe, vise à piloter et à assurer toutes les fonctions support qui sont nécessaires au fonctionnement d une organisation et qui ne sont pas dans son cœur de métier : services aux occupants, services aux bâtiments, achats hors production, etc. Cette approche est séduisante du point de vue de l efficacité énergétique si elle se combine avec une vision systémique du bâtiment car elle offre alors des opportunités en termes de cohérence, d approche en coût global et de qualité environnementale. Le FM interne ou externe est d ailleurs également souvent porteur de la démarche de certification environnementale qui bénéficie par ailleurs d une très forte image auprès des utilisateurs finaux. Cette évolution ouvre bien sûr des perspectives aux SS2E pour intégrer des services d efficacité énergétique dans une prestation plus large de FM qui permet d envisager la maîtrise des consommations d énergie sous un nouvel angle. En effet, ce mode de relation rapproche le prestataire de l utilisateur final, propriétaire occupant ou locataire, au travers de l ensemble des services aux occupants. Or, une des clés de réussite de la diminution de l impact environnemental du bâtiment est liée à l engagement du gestionnaire dans l efficacité énergétique et à sa capacité à fédérer les occupants autour de cette dynamique. En mettant l utilisateur au centre de ses préoccupations et en maintenant une meilleure qualité d usage des espaces, le FM est ainsi idéalement placé pour les impliquer de manière motivante et pour influencer de manière positive leur comportement. Les services d efficacité énergétique avec garantie de résultats conduisent à un partage du risque entre le maître d ouvrage et son prestataire, voire à un transfert total au prestataire si la garantie est totale. Or, l aversion au risque pousse de plus en plus les utilisateurs et les propriétaires vers les démarches avec engagement de résultats. La tendance qui les porte est d acheter avant tout de la performance plus que des travaux ou des services. Cependant, le portage des risques est directement lié au coût de la prestation. Il convient donc de faire porter le risque sur celui qui le maîtrise le mieux afin d optimiser les gains pour chaque partie. Les services d efficacité énergétique peuvent s accompagner éventuellement du financement des investissements par le prestataire. Si leur principe est simple à appréhender, la mise en œuvre de tels contrats ne l est pas toujours. La difficulté relève directement de la forme et de l objet du contrat. C est un partenariat à obligation de résultats sur des économies d énergie qui ne sont pas 227

19 mesurables. C est l opérateur qui détermine ou qui valide le gisement d économie d énergie et qui l exploite en mettant en œuvre des actions d efficacité énergétique adéquates approuvées, certes, par le maître d ouvrage. Il est fréquent que ce dernier constate une asymétrie de l information. Il est important de souligner ici la nécessité pour le maître d ouvrage de constituer une équipe de projet pluridisciplinaire. L ingénierie des contrats de performance énergétique fait en effet à la fois appel à des compétences technique, financière et juridique, d où la nécessité pour le donneur d ordres de se doter d une compétence pluridisciplinaire de gestionnaire d énergie. Les utilisateurs comme les prestataires de FM tendent à privilégier les solutions offrant le minimum de risque. C est pourquoi, ils préfèrent négocier les durées de contrat les plus courtes ou mettre l accent sur les économies immédiates et les temps de retour sur investissement les plus faibles. Ainsi, les contrats FM dépassent-ils rarement 5 ans. Une des conséquences est l arbitrage en faveur des économies faciles et des investissements sur les systèmes énergétiques qui offrent des temps de retour plus attractifs en apparence. Quand les travaux sur l enveloppe sont ignorés, le tarissement progressif des gisements est alors à redouter, compromettant ainsi la division par 4 des gaz à effet de serre d ici Or, seuls une approche systémique du bâtiment combinée à un horizon de temps plus lointain et à une réflexion à l échelle d un patrimoine permettant de mixer différentes solutions de temps de retour différents conciliera facteur 4 et rentabilité. Les avantages du traitement de l enveloppe seront en effet mieux valorisés en tenant compte du durcissement de la réglementation qui favorise l obsolescence et en intégrant le maintien dans le temps de la valeur patrimoniale. Il convient donc de faire émerger une offre de rénovation énergétique avec garantie de résultat intégrant enveloppe, équipements et services. La complexité de la mise en œuvre des services d efficacité énergétique constitue une barrière économique, organisationnelle et technologique. Un levier pour diminuer les coûts de transaction est de considérer la question de l audit énergétique. La garantie de résultats n est assurée par un prestataire qu à la condition qu il réalise lui-même l audit énergétique de l existant. Ainsi, chaque candidat qui remet une offre doit-il réaliser son propre audit. C est une démarche relativement lourde qui ne permet d ouvrir le marché car il faut rémunérer les candidats qui ne sont pas retenus. De plus, les économies d énergie doivent être suffisamment élevées pour couvrir à la fois les frais d études, les coûts financiers, les investissements, la gestion du suivi, les services inclus et la marge du prestataire. Le seuil de la facture énergétique, qui va déterminer si les services d efficacité énergétique avec garantie de performance conviennent, varie suivant la complexité du montage, suivant les spécificités et l état des installations et des bâtiments. Pour les situations sensibles, la facture énergétique annuelle devra dépasser 100 k pour envisager un tel dispositif. Il apparaît donc que ces mécanismes de garantie de performance sont plutôt attractifs pour des ensembles de bâtiments. L approche par pools permet en effet de bénéficier d un effet de masse en amortissant les coûts fixes de gestion sur un parc plus important et en acceptant une prime de risque plus faible par une meilleure répartition des aléas. Il convient d ailleurs de segmenter les différents marchés et d estimer rapidement leur potentiel pour évaluer le rythme de déploiement des services d efficacité énergétique. 228

20 Conclusion Les services d efficacité énergétique intégrés à une offre de FM constituent donc l opportunité d actionner les différents leviers de la performance énergétique facteur 4 (investissement, service, comportement) à condition d adopter une approche systémique du bâtiment et une vision moyen long terme, de prendre en compte le maintien de la qualité d usage des espaces et d avoir une réflexion à l échelle du patrimoine plutôt que du bâtiment. Cela exige de nouvelles compétences ou de nouveaux relais pour les prestataires FM. 229

21 Le FM, une activité au service de la conception? RAMAU Ecole Nationale Supérieure d Architecture de Paris-La Villette Architecture et Facilities Management Le FM une activité au service de la conception? David ERNEST 17 avril 2008 FM et conception Intervenant David ERNEST Mission Développement Durable Icade Président Commission Qualité SYPEMI Président Commission FM France (AFNOR) [email protected]

22 FM et conception Plan de l intervention Normes européennes de Facility Management Ce que disent les normes de FM Les activités couvertes Les principaux enjeux pour la conception Cas d école en France Conception d aménagements intérieurs Les contrats de partenariat (PPP) Que disent les normes de Facility Management? 231

23 Normalisation du FM en Europe Les deux normes Deux normes FM Norme n 1 Termes et définitions Norme n 2 Guide accords de FM Normalisation du FM en Europe Norme n 1 : Termes et définitions Quelques Définitions (NF EN ) : Facility : tangible asset that supports an organisation ~ Installation support : «bien matériel à l appui d une organisation» Cela va du mobilier aux biens immobiliers (!) en passant par les installations techniques. Cela ne couvrent pas les installations industrielles nécessaires au cœur de métier (exemple : une chaîne de production) 232

24 Normalisation du FM en Europe Norme n 1 : Termes et définitions Quelques Définitions (NF EN ) : Facility Service : support provision to the primary activities of an organisation, delivered by an internal or external provider ~ Service de facility management :«prestation venant en appui des activités principales d une organisation, fournie par un prestataire interne ou externe» Il s agit de toutes les prestations qui peuvent entrer dans le périmètre du Facility Management. Ces services peuvent être réalisés en interne ou en externe Normalisation du FM en Europe Norme n 1 : Termes et définitions Quelques Définitions (NF EN ) : Facility Management : the integration of processes within an organisation to maintain and develop the agreed services which support and improve the effectiveness of its primary activities ~ «intégration de processus au sein d une organisation visant à assurer et développer les services convenus pour soutenir et améliorer l efficacité des activités principales de cette organisation» 233

25 Quels sont les activités couvertes par le Facility Management? Périmètre du Facility Management 234

26 Normalisation du FM en Europe Les activités concernées Services à l espace et aux infrastructures : Les pratiqués : Conduite et Maintenance des installations ; Energies et fluides, gestion des déchets ; Nettoyage (parties communes) Les moins pratiqués : Gestion immobilière (corporate real estate) ; Gestion des postes de travail Aménagement des espaces de travail ; Gestion de projets immobiliers (construction) Normalisation du FM en Europe Les activités concernées Services à la personne & organisations : Les pratiqués : Le multiservice Les moins pratiqués : Les services à la personne ; L appui administratif (RH, comptabilité, etc.) 235

27 Enjeux des normes FM pour la conception Normalisation du FM en Europe Conséquences pour la conception Le FM ne traite pas que du bâtiment, mais une part importante des services pilotés sont liés à l immobilier ; Le FM intègre l ensemble des supports (matériels et services) aux activités principales de l organisation ; Le bâtiment est un de ces supports («facilities») ; Le FM définit, adapte et gère les «facilities» pour qu elles servent le cœur de métier!!! 236

28 Deux cas d école en France aménagements intérieurs contrats de partenariat FM et conception Aménagements intérieurs Actuellement : Un space planning dissocié du facilities management Connaissance insuffisante des besoins du cœur de métier ; Manque d intégration aménagement services support ; Faible adaptabilité des aménagements aux évolutions du cœur de métier dans le temps ; Une conception architecturale dissociée du space planning Connaissance insuffisante des besoins en aménageabilité ; Nécessité de «refaire» l immeuble pour correspondre aux attentes des utilisateurs ; Manque de souplesse des éléments techniques (éclairage, clim, acoustique) qui contribuent au confort Faible adaptabilité du bâti aux modifications des aménagements dans le temps 237

29 FM et conception Aménagements intérieurs Proposition : Facilities Management Aménagements Intérieurs Conception Architecturale FM et conception Contrats de partenariat Actuellement : Conception puis gestion Prise en compte insuffisante des besoins de l exploitation dans la phase conception ; Logique de coût global encore peu intégrée ; Organisation de projet pilotée par les «constructeurs» ; Gestion puis services supports Gestion conçue dans une logique «services à l immeuble» Faible prise en compte de l utilisateur final Manque de souplesse du fonctionnement technique (éclairage, clim, acoustique) qui contribue au confort 238

30 FM et conception Aménagements intérieurs Proposition : Besoins Usage Besoins Gestion Besoins Construction 239

31 ORGANISATION DE PROJET ET CHAINE DE VALEUR 240

32 Optimising Added Value in Facilities Management through Value Chain Management Dr Margaret-Mary Nelson School of the Built Environment and Engineering University of Bolton Abstract Optimising and demonstrating added value by Facilities Management (FM) is one of the most important challenges faced by the industry today. Pressures from the need for continuous cost savings in this sector has created a high profile for cost related activities from both demand and supply side organisations. There is however an emerging impact on the quality of FM services as a result of this which needs to be addressed. This paper introduces the background to new research being undertaken in value chain management (VCM) in FM at the University of Bolton. It presents the results of literature review undertaken on value, demand and supply chain management, and describes further stages in this research. In FM, value is added to an organisation at strategic, tactical and operational levels. This research proposes that an integrated and holistic approach is required which takes into cognisance all the factors in Demand Chain Management and Supply Chain Management to optimise added value by FM to an organisation s business objectives. Keywords: Facilities Management, Value Chain Management, Demand Chain Management, Supply Chain Management Introduction Porter (1985) stated that the value system disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behaviour of costs and potential sources of differentiation. He identified that the value system is based on the premise that the fundamental basis of above-average performance in the long run is sustainable competitive advantage and that there are two basic types of competitive advantage a firm can possess: low cost or differentiation. So far FM has mainly focused on low cost competitive advantage leading to the increasing trend in outsourcing of FM services. With the dynamism prevalent in today s business world, it is not just enough to win the competitive edge, as yesterday s competitive advantage is today s competitive necessity (Hammer, 1998). Businesses have to keep innovating and improving to keep this advantage. Emphasis has also shifted especially in Western societies from the manufacturing base to the knowledge base, i.e. from physical assets to people and information and communication technologies (knowledge assets). Facilities Management (FM) as a business support service is challenged with both offering a lost 241

33 cost solution to the provision of facilities services (physical assets), and creating differentiation for organisations in the ever increasing war on attraction and retention of the best talents (knowledge assets). Although FM has been demonstrating added value in terms of cost savings to a degree, it has failed to demonstrate to organisations boards its role in adding value to organisational performance. This lies at the heart of this research. Literature review identified that the terms supply, demand and value chain management are used interchangeably depending on authors perspectives. This research found that the FM industry has started to address issues in Supply Chain Management (SCM). Halland (1996) refers to SCM as either a process-oriented management approach to sourcing, producing and delivering goods and services to end consumers or, in a broader meaning, to the co-ordination of the various actors belonging to the same supply chain. However, there is very little known about Demand Chain Management (DCM) in FM. DCM is an umbrella philosophy that places customers at the centre and focuses all business activities on developing long-term relationships with customers by proactively creating and delivering solutions that profitably meet continually evolving customer needs (Predictive Consulting, 2003). Although the term value added is commonly used in FM, it has been very difficult to determine exactly what it means. This is because value is a relative term, and needs to be examined in the context of the organisation s business strategies and objectives. Alexander (1999) stated that value chain management is related to an organisation s ongoing strategic management process. All three represent different concepts though they all refer to the process of producing value for an end user, the ultimate customer (Metz, 1998). Each concept on its own addresses specific issues relating to supporting the business need. This research proposes that an integrated and holistic approach to FM is required which takes into cognisance all the factors in demand management and SCM to create a value system, optimising FM and ultimately business performance. Supply Chain Management The FM supply chain represents the interests of the following stakeholders: clients, FM planners and providers, suppliers of goods and services, regulatory authorities and insurers (Nelson, 2001). The last two have a large, albeit indirect role, to play in FM. The case for effective and efficient management of the supply chain is backed by research, which shows that 60% of variable costs are driven by decisions made outside the organisation (Ross, 1999). Effective management of the supply chain would enable optimisation of the supply chain as well as the control and management of these variable costs. As in manufacturing (Stevens, 1989), SCM in FM needs to be developed at strategic, tactical and operational levels. The focus at the strategic level is on developing (adapted from Gattorna and Walters, 1996): Objectives and policies for the supply chain to achieve competitive superiority; The physical components of the supply chain; 242

34 Customer charter; Organisational structure capable of bridging the functional barriers to achieve integration. At the tactical level, the focus is on the means by which the strategic objectives may be met, e.g. identifying necessary resources. Whilst at the operational level it is the efficient operation of the supply chain with a focus on systems, control and performance measures (Stevens, 1989). It was further suggested that a three-stage process is involved in SCM, namely: 1. Evaluation of the competitive environment; 2. Supply chain diagnostic review; 3. Supply chain development. The author identified the most important supply chain issues as: Client s requirements capture, and specification of service delivery standards. Linking FM with the strategic business processes. Developments in technology and its impact on working patterns. Organisational processes capture. Consolidation / rationalisation of the supply chain. Environmental management. Alignment of organisations business processes. Literature review revealed that other important issues identified as far back as 1997 were flexible working (including changes in working practice), outsourcing, benchmarking, cost-effectiveness (including value for money and efficiency), space planning, the environment, energy management and Human Resource (HR) matters (BIFM, 1997). Again in 2002, research identified the following: flexible working (including changes in working practice), outsourcing, benchmarking, cost-effectiveness (including value for money and efficiency), space planning, environmental issues, energy management and HR matters (BIFM, 2002). These are, on the whole, very similar to the findings from this research study and are still reflective of the FM market today. Demand Chain Management Although sometimes used in place of supply chain, the demand chain represents a circular process that flows from the mind of the consumer to the market (Blackwell and Blackwell, 1999). It is about unifying the complex network of people, organizations, and processes that are designed to create and service demand for a company's products. (Scribe Software, 2002), or services as in FM. The demand chain is seen as the customer-facing corollary to the supply chain (Predictive Consulting, 2003), taking account of customer behaviour. This in FM means a focus on the delivery of services towards meeting customer requirements. Demand chain management (DCM) focuses on company growth potential rather than costs. There is an in-depth knowledge of customer requirements, an integration of their thoughts, attitudes, needs, and desires into everything the organisation does. The 243

35 organisation also adapts to meet customers actual needs and desires rather than perceived desires. This approach has been found to emphasise understanding and serve individual customer needs to create and sustain profitable competitive advantage (Predictive Consulting, 2003). Value Chain Management in FM This research proposes that value chain management (VCM) in FM represents a holistic and integrated approach, which includes both DCM and SCM (fig 1). SCM is more concerned with procurement strategies at strategic level and service delivery at operational level. DCM on the other hand focuses on organisational objectives at strategic level and meeting the customer s needs at operational level. The FM Value chain diagram (fig 1) shows that there needs to be alignment between SCM and DCM to achieve an integrated approach to FM. Furthermore, culture plays a very important in aligning and managing SCM and DCM effectively. This is done through both process management and relationship management (on the one hand supplier relationship management [SRM], and on the other, customer relationship management [CRM]). Management of the FM value chain incorporating all of these variables creates optimisation of added value by FM to the client organisation. Procurement Supply Service Delivery Culture Alignment Customer Needs Demand Business objectives Process Management Relationship Management Knowledge Management Infrastructure Management FM Value Chain Nelson (2004) Figure 1 The FM Value Chain FM should be demand-led, although in practice it is very much cost-led. However working on the desirable premise that FM is demand driven, SCM initiatives likewise need to be demand driven. An issue that lies at the heart of FM is the fact that resources are needed to implement effective management. However, FM is usually the first area of business where cost savings are sought, hence the term value usually is translated into cost Therefore when we talk about best value it usually translates into cheapest 244

36 cost. Varcoe (2000) describes this in a broader sense stating that corporate real estate teams are using service providers to manage cost-driven issues and achieve economies, whilst they concentrate more on business-facing issues and overall effectiveness. FM also usually plays a responsive than a proactive role in the organisation. In order to raise the FM profile, FM needs to be more proactive. With integration, FM would act as an interface between the client (demand chain) and the integrated supply chain. To do this, FM should have adequate knowledge of the organisation s business, and its physical and spatial needs, as well as physical resources available to meet those needs. Future Research This research proposes to explore this approach to FM in partnership with a number of industry-based partners. It seeks to: Explore both concepts of supply and demand chain management in FM Explore methods of achieving alignment between SCM and DCM Identify cultural issues and impact on VCM Examine process and relationship management in FM Demonstrate value added FM References Alexander, K. (1999). Developing the Value Chain. Internal document, Centre for Facilities Management, University of Strathclyde. Blackwell, R.D. and Blackwell, K. (1999). The Century of the Consumer: Converting Supply Chains into Demand Chains. Supply Chain Management Review. (Cited June 2000). Available on the World Wide Web: URL British Institute of Facilities Management. (2002). Members Survey British Institute of Facilities Management. Members Copy. Gattorna, J.L. and Walters, D.W. (1996). Managing the Supply Chain: A Strategic Perspective. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Press Limited. Hammer, M. (1998). Reengineering the Supply Chain: An Interview with Michael Hammer, Supply Chain Management Review. Available on the World Wide Web URL (last accessed on 13 December 2002) Metz, P.J. (1998). Demystifying Supply Chain Management. Supply Chain Management Review. (Cited in September 2000). Available on the World Wide Web: URL and Porter, M.E. (1985). Competitive Advantage Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. New York: The Free Press. Predictive Consulting. (2003). Demand Chain Management. Available form the World Wide Web URL Ross, K. (1999). Creating Value from Business to Business Integration. Cited 20/06/2000. Available at (last accessed on 20 June 2000) 245

37 Scribe Software. (2002). Demand Chain Management Overview. Available on the World Wide Web URL: Last accessed 09 February 2003 Stevens, G.C. (1989). Cited in Gattorna, J.L. and Walters, D.W. (1996). Managing the Supply Chain: A Strategic Perspective. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Press Limited. Varcoe, B. (2000). Implications for facility management of the changing business climate. Facilities. Vol 18(10/11/12). Pp

38 Architecture et Urbanisme : L'impact du "facility management" sur l'organisation et les métiers de la conception et des services Claudie Meyer (*) - Antoine Lainé (**) 2 Le secteur de l'immobilier n'échappe pas à l'obligation d'élargir et de compléter le champ de son offre. Aux composantes traditionnelles des compétences associées à l'acte de construire (la maîtrise d'ouvrage, la maîtrise d'œuvre et l'entreprise), l'offre immobilière intègre, depuis une dizaine d'années en France, une part de plus en plus significative de services sous la forme de "facility management". Deux tendances concomitantes ont contribué à renforcer la place du FM dans les processus de décision immobilière : - la recherche de la professionnalisation de la fonction au sein des SG des entreprises pour améliorer leur performance économique. - les préoccupations des professionnels de l immobilier pour accroître la satisfaction de leurs clients en proposant de nouveaux services autour de l immeuble avec comme résultat la dématérialisation du produit immobilier (du point de vue du financement, du rendement ou du point de vue du service à l occupant) Dans ce nouvel environnement de l'immobilier, l'activité de "facility management" induit des questions de continuité de service, de fiabilité des ressources pour les entreprises. Elle est susceptible d'impacter leur résultat significativement puisque les services immobiliers représentent en moyenne 3 % de la valeur ajoutée de l entreprise. Née dans les pays anglo-saxons, cette activité de management consiste à offrir, piloter et développer des services immobiliers fournis par des tiers à une entreprise cliente lui donnant ainsi la possibilité d'externaliser une fonction-support coûteuse et de se recentrer sur son cœur de métier. Cependant, pour que le "FM" se diffuse et constitue une véritable alternative de management pour gérer les patrimoines immobiliers dont les services généraux ont la charge, il est nécessaire que l'activité se rationnalise autour d'un référentiel clair, de démarches, de modèles et d'outils, autrement dit de méthodes. Le préalable à ce travail est d'apprécier le rôle du "FM" dans les transformations du processus de la décision immobilière. Plus précisément, l'appréciation repose : 1. d'une part, sur l'analyse de la décision immobilière et du déroulement de son processus en identifiant la place nouvelle qu'y prend le "FM". 2. d'autre part, sur le repérage dans le processus de "FM" à partir d'exemples de tâches récurrentes à optimiser pour proposer à la réflexion quelques voies de rationalisation. 2 (*) Université Paris Est, S3IS, IFIS Marne-la-Vallée, Maître de conférences en Sciences de Gestion (**)Université Paris Est, S3IS, IFIS Marne-la-Vallée, Maître de conférences associé 247

39 Ce sont ces processus et ces perspectives qui font l'objet de ce point d'étape dans la réflexion sur l'évolution des métiers de l'immobilier. 1. De l'émergence du "FM" dans le processus de la décision immobilière La décision immobilière est une réalité dont les contours sont difficiles à définir. Elle consolide des rationalités d acteurs, des expériences et des opportunités dans un contexte à chaque fois particulier. En ce sens, la décision immobilière rappelle les caractéristiques d une décision faiblement structurée 3 et stratégique 4. Le processus qui y conduit ne se déroule pas de manière uniforme mais repose essentiellement sur des flux informationnels qui s agrègent pour réduire l incertitude. Aussi, identifier la place nouvelle qu y prennent le "FM" et le «FMer» peut paraître une gageure. Les FMer représentent couramment le processus de la décision immobilière en distinguant deux temps forts dans le cycle de vie d un immeuble : le moment de la conception et de la construction qui sera appelé amont et le temps de l exploitation qui représente la partie aval du processus. La pratique professionnelle évolue et (1) la participation du FMer sur les temps amont s accroît, (2) bouleversant dans le même temps le contenu de sa prestation sur l ensemble du cycle de vie - Le «FMer», occupant futur de l'immeuble, a des idées sur la façon dont il doit l'occuper, et il entend de plus en plus souvent que son opinion soit prise en compte. Quand on sait l'importance de la "sortie" dans le processus de promotion immobilière, quand on sait les risques immobiliers exposés dans les années 90 avec une offre tertiaire sans demande, on imagine aisément l'intérêt d'intégrer dans le processus de la décision immobilière celui qui va devenir l'utilisateur de l'immeuble. Ainsi, il est légitime d avancer que le travail des exploitants rejaillit sur l'usage, la pérennité et la rentabilité de l'ouvrage construit comme les décisions des constructeurs influent sur les modes d'exploitation de l'immeuble. Au triptyque traditionnel des participants à l'acte de construire (le maître d'ouvrage, le maître d'œuvre et l'entrepreneur), vient donc s agréger un quatrième intervenant qui doit donner son avis sur le fonctionnement de l'immeuble après sa construction. Ce nouvel acteur présent traditionnellement dans l exploitation, fédère les connaissances qui impactent durablement l exploitation de l immeuble. Il traduit les préoccupations des locataires, propriétaires, syndic qui sont susceptibles d améliorer 3 SIMON H, «a behavioral model of rational choices», Quarterly Journal of Economics, ANTHONY, R., The Management Control Function,, The Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Trad. fr

40 la performance de tout projet de construction pour peu qu elles soient prises en compte dès la conception. Tout se passe comme si on prenait conscience du fait que l'exploitation quotidienne de l'immeuble était une fonction réciproque de sa conception et de sa réalisation et qu'il était nécessaire d'intégrer, ce nouvel acteur, le sachant, dans le processus amont de la construction-réalisation. La place de ce spécialiste n'est pourtant pas acquise au sein de l équipe de la décision immobilière. Ses questionnements sont souvent générateurs de perturbations remontant les questions d exploitation pour tenter d influencer les choix de partis techniques. En revanche, sa présence est une opportunité pour améliorer la qualité de la future décision en redistribuant les rôles dans l'acte de bâtir et en clarifiant son intervention dans le processus. - Cette intégration du FMer dans les opérations amont s'inscrit dans une évolution progressive. Elle a commencé par une intervention de l'occupant d'abord au moment des finitions, comme si l'exploitation immobilière se résumait à une décision cosmétique. Le FMer a pu ensuite intervenir un peu plus tôt dans le processus, au moment du choix de partis techniques comme le choix et la production d'énergie. Plus récemment, il est intervenu dans l'organisation détaillée de l'espace et dans le choix des matériaux dont il aura à rendre compte, quand il devra établir une étude d'impact de son activité sur l'environnement ou un bilan-carbone de son immeuble au titre de la fiscalité écologique. Ainsi, l évolution de la participation du FMer de plus en en plus en amont du cycle de décision et sur des sujets de plus en plus déterminants conduit à élargir son champ d action notamment en répondant, au côté des autres participants, aux exigences de pérennité de l'investissement, au maintien de sa valeur spéculative comme à la définition des besoins des occupants. Les services rendus par le Fmer se structurent également de plus en plus en aval de la décision immobilière. Ils participent aux opérations de réception des immeubles en vérifiant l'adéquation du bâti et des contraintes qui lui sont fixées. Après la mise en route fonctionnelle des constructions, les spécialistes du FM sont chargés d'optimiser les coûts d'exploitation des patrimoines qu'on leur confie, de consolider les informations techniques et financières qu'il en tirent pour enrichir leur expertise et de restituer ces données dans le processus d'ingénierie qui permet de modifier l'exploitation du bâti ou de capitaliser sur de nouvelles expériences. Si on constate que le sachant en exploitation immobilière intervient de plus en plus tôt dans l'élaboration du projet, sa place est encore très dépendante de l'intérêt que lui porte le maître d'ouvrage et son statut n'est conforté par aucun texte. Les domaines (le périmètre d intervention) sur lesquels on lui demande d'intervenir ou de se manifester ne sont pas systématiquement comparables, la terminologie est encore floue, la normalisation balbutiante et les informations notamment financières sont encore trop souvent hétérogènes et physiquement dispersées. La mise en évidence d une installation progressive du métier du FM dans le processus immobilier par un marquage dans le temps et dans le contenu alimente toutefois, une certaine inquiétude de la part des autres participants à l acte de construire. Aussi, ces processus gagneraient peut-être à être rationalisés 249

41 2. A la rationalisation du processus du FM Un certain nombre d'efforts et d expérience ont été faits par les professionnels pour commencer à dresser un cadre clair et cohérent et, de préférence, commun (comme la terminologie des surfaces) aux projets de FM pour permettre d'intégrer les porteurs de ces projets dans les équipes de conception et de construction du Bâti; De ces expériences, il ressort deux dimensions récurrentes du FM qui peuvent apporter plus de lisibilité et de rationalité au processus de la décision immobilière et qu'il faut prendre en compte dans l élaboration des cahiers de charges d'exploitation immobilière avec des maîtres d'œuvre spécialisés. Il s'agit d'introduire dans le processus d'élaboration du projet de FM des éléments nouveaux de contenu et de méthode pour mieux assurer le résultat futur des opérations : - La dimension sociale qui se retrouve dans le processus sous la forme de cahier des charges d'ingénierie sociale. Elle prend en compte plusieurs fonctions 'contrainte' du projet immobilier : - Produire un service relève d interactions entre un client et un prestataire qualifiées de co-production 5. La promiscuité des équipes internes du client avec des entreprises extérieures de services doit être préparée au plan organisationnel tant au niveau de la responsabilité des opérations que de leurs coordinations. C'est un aspect qui ouvre aussi la réflexion sur le management des hommes et notamment comment anticiper les mixités culturelles, et gérer l'interculturalité sous la forme de dialogue, de sensibilisation, de formation, de constitution de groupes de parole ou par le développement des capacités d'écoute. - Le cahier des charges doit également tenir compte de l évolutivité des besoins des occupants en considérant tout à la fois, l'obligation de bâtir et d'exploiter l'immeuble pour des occupants, l optimisation de leur environnement de travail mais aussi les mutations de leurs demandes, voire de leurs exigences de services qui évoluent très vite. (comme les modifications de la demande dans la restauration collective le démontrent largement); Cette évolution de la demande est susceptible d'être anticipée par le recours aux enquêtes de besoins et par une veille attentive et rigoureuse sur le comportement et les exigences de l'occupant immobilier. - L'intervention d'entreprises extérieures de services menée par des professionnels est porteuse de changement pour l organisation. Elle est rarement du goût des équipes internes qui par peur de l inconnu, et pour préserver leurs périmètres d action, peuvent exprimer une forte résistance au changement et ainsi mettre en péril la bonne réalisation des prestations du FMer. Elle peut modifier le cadre de l environnement de travail et ainsi freiner la dynamique collective en perturbant l intimité des relations que l'entreprise entretient avec ses salariés et que les salariés entretiennent entre eux. En pointant ces contraintes dans le CC, le FMer initie un accompagnement du changement pour faciliter l acceptation et la mise en 5 DELAUNAY J.C., GADREY J., "Les enjeux de la société de service", Paris, Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques,

42 oeuvre de la nouvelle prestation. Il peut par exemple prévoir des actions de communication sur la nouvelle prestation - La dimension juridique que l'on retrouve dans les cahiers des charges administratifs doit intégrer des aspects contractuels peu fréquents en droit français : - L'obligation d'ouvrir le contrat à des évolutions fréquentes et quelquefois contradictoires au gré des besoins exprimés ou non du donneur d'ordre, ce qui implique une grande souplesse dans les modalités d'application sur des périodes longues. La notion du service et de la capacité d'adaptation du prestataire devient primordiale dans l'écriture contractuelle et donne de l'importance dans le processus d'exploitation de l'immeuble à la capacité qu a le prestataire d'anticiper les besoins de son donneur d'ordre. - L'obligation d'ouvrir également le contrat à la prise en compte de l'obsolescence de l'immeuble et de ses composants comme à l'obsolescence des prestations en vue de construire ou d'adapter une meilleure programmation. - L'intégration dans le contrat des méthodes de contrôle de performances sous la forme d'enquêtes de satisfaction qui sont utilisées comme des outils de prévention des dysfonctionnements ou des signaux d'alarme face à la dégradation éventuelle des prestations de services immobiliers. - Les pénalités qui remettent en cause l'économie du contrat et sont assises sur la dimension du préjudice. La connaissance du coût de la prestation de service est alors nécessaire pour donner une valeur aux dysfonctionnements. - Le constat du fonctionnement du contrat, le jugement sur les prestations, tout se qui touche aux moyens et aux résultats est rendu objectif en confiant le diagnostic à un tiers (généralement un expert) indépendant du donneur d'ordre et du FMer. C'est un nouvel intervenant au service de l'acte de construire qui complète l'équipe concernée par la décision immobilière. Les exemples ci-dessus agrégés, constituent la «vue» du FMer. Ils complètent les documents clés étayant les processus de décision immobilière pour en améliorer la qualité. Pourtant, ces dimensions sociales et juridiques complémentaires et qui intègrent la dimension du FM dans l'acte de construire sont encore embryonnaires du point de vue méthodologique. Nombre de spécialistes continuent à tâtonner quand il s'agit de formaliser une démarche commune d'insertion du FM dans le projet immobilier. Il suffit 251

43 pour s'en persuader de compter le nombre de schémas possibles de contractualisation dans les PPP6. Pourtant, l'intégration des activités de service dans l'acte de bâtir aura eu la vertu d'exporter dans le monde du BTP et de faire partager à tous les acteurs les méthodes de capitalisation sur l'évolution des savoir-faire, les techniques de l'enquête de satisfaction, d'introduire les outils d'accompagnement du changement et d'ouvrir le métier à un management qui prenne en compte le "Temps" non seulement comme une contrainte (la durée du chantier, le coût du financement) mais aussi comme un facteur d enrichissement (les expériences) et comme une donnée à optimiser (la durée de vie de l'immeuble). Une piste d ouverture et de professionnalisation pourrait se trouver également dans le benchmarking de ces pratiques avec les pratiques les pays anglo-saxons ou d autres secteurs d activités qui se transforment également profondément avec la montée en puissance des activités de services comme par exemple le secteur des technologies de l information. 6 PPP = Partenariats Public-Privé 252

44 Le PPP, approche contractualisée de la conception en coût global Dominique Liffran Délégué au patrimoine immobilier, CEMAGREF Coût global et construction publique L affirmation par les maitres d'ouvrages publics de l'objectif d'une prise en compte du coût global des ouvrages dès la conception est ancienne. Pourtant, cet objectif n a jamais été complètement concrétisé. En effet, si la capacité de la personne publique à avoir une vision à long terme sur le plan fonctionnel est indiscutable - il lui arrive d ailleurs d anticiper "dans le béton" des besoins futurs-, il n'en est pas de même au plan des coûts. Les exemples dans lesquels la maintenabilité ou les coûts d'exploitation ont été négligés sont légions Structurellement, la distinction des budgets d'investissement et de fonctionnement et l annualisation de ces derniers 7 est d autant moins un facteur favorable à un raisonnement global qu il se traduit dans les organigrammes. Ainsi celui qui dispose de la responsabilité globale est situé à un niveau tel qu il est rarement sollicité pour arbitrer sur le thème du coût global. En outre, le sentiment de responsabilité financière à très long terme est culturellement peu présente, les échéances électorales le justifiant en partie. Une des conséquences est la faible intervention des problématiques d'exploitation en phase de conception, les évaluations de coût global, étant menées (lorsqu'elles le sont) à un stade très théorique. Elles sont d'ailleurs le plus souvent externalisées, sans base de données interne exploitable, ni retour d'informations ex post prévu. En outre les performances fonctionnelles à atteindre en matière d'exploitation sont souvent trop peu précisées pour en évaluer le coût objectif. Face à ce constat, le PPP en tant que modalité intrinsèquement intégrante peut constituer une réponse. En effet, dans un contrat de partenariat, la personne publique se trouvera, à un interlocuteur unique à qui il confiera pour une longue durée le soin de lui fournir l'infrastructure immobilière nécessaire à l'activité prévue. Il n'est plus seulement question de construire L approche est totalement différente. La globalisation des coûts sur la durée est posée comme principe contractuel dès le programme, ce coût, parce qu'il n'est plus seulement une évaluation plus ou moins fiable mais un engagement contractuel, est déterminant pour le choix du projet. 7 certes remise en cause par la Loi organique relative aux lois de finances (LOLF) mais cependant trop récemment pour avoir déjà modifié les comportements des décideurs 253

45 Consécutivement, il y a, coté partenaire privé, une véritable solidarité à l'origine du projet entre le financeur, le concepteur, le réalisateur et l'exploitant. Sans elle, il n'y a pas d'offre compétitive, donc pas de projet. Il s'agit d'une approche radicalement différente de la commande immobilière publique, où l'usage prend le pas sur l'objet. Cette nouvelle modalité constitue en soi un modèle d'évaluation de l'impact des problématiques d'exploitation sur la conception et permet une approche différente des déterminants d'un projet. D'une part, sa traduction contractuelle impose d'évidence à la personne publique une réflexion approfondie comme elle ne l'a jamais été sur les usages attendus de l'ouvrage. D'autre part, la position centrale des questions financières, prises en compte globalement dès la conception initiale puis durant l'exploitation de l'ouvrage, peut être analysée non pas seulement comme facteur limitatif mais comme facteur de performance fonctionnelle Les leviers de l'optimisation en coût global dans l'expression contractuelle du partenariat Les contrats publics ont usuellement des durées limitées (sauf pour les délégations de service public - dsp), ce qui autorise une marge de flou dans le corpus contractuel car les possibilités d'ajustement ultérieur sont importantes, soit par avenant, soit par commande complémentaire auprès de tiers, soit à l'occasion des marchés de renouvellement. Dans le cas du PPP, il en va différemment, puisque la grande complexité du contrat le rend par nature peu manœuvrant. Ainsi la conception de l édifice contractuel est cruciale autant pour le bénéfice fonctionnel de l utilisation de l ouvrage, que pour l efficacité économique, non seulement durant les deux ou trois décennies du contrat que dans celle qui suit sa fin. Cela impose le respect de quelques règles cardinales : Le partage des risques : En premier lieu, le partage des risques, doit être fait sans concession en partant du principe suivant lequel l efficacité fonctionnelle autant qu économique sera maximisée si les risques sont assumés entièrement par la partie qui est la plus à même de l assumer : il faut donc un transfert massif de ces risques au partenaire privé. Expression performancielle des exigences : Ensuite, pour que ce transfert de risque soit effectif, au plan technique, il est indispensable d avoir une définition totalement fonctionnelle des objectifs de résultats, appréciables sans contestation, et sans limitation de l autonomie du partenaire dans la définition des moyens nécessaires. Partant du principe selon lequel seul ce qui est spécifié dans le contrat peut être raisonnablement espéré dans la durée, cette définition sera très détaillée Cette approche performancielle sera faite à même niveau pour la phase de mise à disposition, celle d exploitation, et celle du transfert de propriété. En effet, la notion de 254

46 coût global ne s'entendant pas sur une durée limitée à la durée du contrat, les exigences de maintien de la valeur doivent être clairement spécifiées. Les leviers économiques : Enfin, au plan économique, les moyens ne seront disponibles non pas seulement parce qu ils répondent à un besoin contractuel mais parce que l intérêt économique du partenaire est de les mettre en œuvre. Cela implique une pénalisation systématique en cas de sous performance, à un niveau significativement plus élevé que le coût de la performance à atteindre et dont le cumul puisse en péril la rentabilité du partenaire privé. Un mécanisme rigoureux de contrôle de la performance doit donc être prévu. Il doit être défini pour chacune des performances à atteindre, il doit réaliste quant aux moyens à mettre en œuvre par la personne publique. Nous connaissons en effet tous des marchés avec des exigences tout à fait judicieuses mais peu crédibles soit parce que les modalités du contrôle n'ont pas été contractualisées, soit parce que la personne publique n'a pas les ressources budgétaires ou humaines pour en assurer le contrôle. Les acteurs La personne publique maitre d ouvrage : Dans le schéma classique, la personne publique assume séquentiellement et de façon itérative sur la vie de l'ouvrage les responsabilités de définition des usages, de maitrise d'ouvrage, de conception, de réalisation, de maintenance, d'exploitation et d'utilisation de l'ouvrage publique. En raison à la fois de moyens budgétaires inadaptés, de programmes insuffisamment précis et d une réalisation imparfaite, l optimisation est difficile, mais cela est admis car l'indulgence du bénéficiaire de l'ouvrage, personne publique est importante vis-à-vis de la personne publique maitre de l'ouvrage. La personne publique maitre d usage : L'introduction du partenaire privé modifie profondément cet équilibre et impose à la personne publique une posture tout à fait différente puisque sa créativité n'a plus d'expression opérante après la signature du contrat. Il lui faut alors réfléchir anticiper réellement les besoins futurs, et se positionner comme le client (au sens quasi hôtelier) de l'ouvrage à construire. La définition de l'usage et de la permanence de sa disponibilité deviennent la préoccupation principale, tandis que celle de l'ouvrage en lui-même passe au second plan : ce sera l affaire du partenaire privé. La personne n'a d'ailleurs guère le choix car sur la durée du contrat, elle ne sera pas propriétaire de l'ouvrage et ses droits sur celui-ci seront strictement limités à ce qui a été prévu dans le contrat. De maitre d'ouvrage la personne publique devient «maitre d'usage», expression à consacrer. Loin de consister en une réduction du rôle ni d'altérer sa mission publique elle lui permet au contraire de se concentrer sur celle-ci et non plus sur les moyens immobiliers. 255

47 C est un changement culturel important car ce qu on appelle les «services constructeurs» sont des services d ingénieurs plus habitués à définir des moyens techniques qu à caractériser des objectifs de résultats purement fonctionnels. Un changement de posture contractuel : La difficulté provient aussi du changement de posture contractuel. Depuis le début des études jusqu à la fin des travaux puis en phase exploitation, le maitre d ouvrage peut se satisfaire d outils contractuels imparfaits incomplets ou limités : la prise de risque n est pas immense, avenants, marchés complémentaires ou nouveaux permettront malgré tout d obtenir le résultat opérationnel.. La durée limitée des contrats autorise en lui-même beaucoup d ajustements Or, dans le cas du contrat de partenariat, la situation est très différente : Il est essentiel que l engagement du partenaire recouvre l ensemble des prestations prévues, sans omissions et que cet engagement soit respecté (c'est-à-dire avoir prévu les moyens pour). Car, dans le cas contraire, il n y aura pas de solution de rattrapage : les crédits ne seront pas disponibles puisqu ils seront déjà engagés sur le contrat de partenariat. Du coté du partenaire la question est symétrique : la longue durée du contrat lui impose une grande prudence : il ne pourra pas durablement se dispenser ou interpréter à son avantage des exigences du contrat, la conséquence financière pourrait en être calamiteuse. L interlocuteur contractuel de la personne publique au sein du consortium : Le mot «partenaire privé» ne désigne ni l architecte, ni le major du BTP du porte étendard du projet, ni la société en charge du FM : certes ils interviendront en permanence dans la négociation du contrat et dans son déroulement, mais ce ne sont pas eux qui ont véritablement le pouvoir. En effet, le contrat n est signé avec aucun d eux mais avec une société ad hoc, ou société de projet, dénommée SPV «special purpose vehicle», Le mot est barbare et on préférera traduire cela par «société de projet», cela ne désigne rien d autre qu un instrument financier. Le choix de faire financer le projet par le privé implique que le financement est basé sur la rentabilité du projet, et très marginalement sur les capacités financières des entreprises du consortium qui, de la sorte, prennent un risque limité. Mécanismes financiers et gestion des risques : Il y a donc un recours massif au marché financier. Comme la valeur de réalisation des actifs ne pourrait permettre aux prêteurs de se rembourser, ceux-ci, c'est-à-dire les banquiers, vont se placer dans une situation quasi opérationnelle auprès des dirigeants de la SPV afin qu à aucun moment la concrétisation des risques inhérents au projet et affectés à chacun des intervenants ne mette en cause la rentabilité du projet, donc le recouvrement de la dette. Au fil du déroulement du contrat, l intérêt des entreprises du consortium pour la performance opérationnelle s atténuera : au-delà de l année de parfait achèvement, architecte et constructeur ont achevé leur mission, ensuite, le relais est ensuite pris 256

48 jusqu à la fin, par l entreprise en charge du FM. Mais cela est théorique car elle pourrait, une fois son investissement dans le projet rentabilisé, disparaître sans avoir assumé ses obligations à long terme en matière de gros entretien renouvellement (GER). Mais si jusqu au bout du contrat le remboursement de la dette peut être affecté par la performance opérationnelle, alors le banquier s assurera tout au long du contrat que la performance opérationnelle est garantie. Il sera donc, dès la phase de conception, attentif à ce qu intrinsèquement, la qualité de l ouvrage réponde à cette exigence, et donc que les besoins techniques de l entreprise de FM soient bien pris en compte dans le projet, ensuite que celle-ci assume bien ses obligations. Son intérêt est clairement d optimiser le coût global. Le service de la dette, un rôle moteur dans la qualité du projet et son optimisation en cout global : Ainsi, le véritable client des entreprises du consortium est le service de la dette. C est donc la dette qui est le véritable fournisseur de la personne publique. Est-ce pour autant réducteur voire sacrificateur que de réduire ainsi la qualité d un ouvrage et sa fonctionnalité à une dimension strictement financière? Non, parce que la notion de coût global dont l optimisation est un objectif validé par tous, qui ne néglige pas les exigences qualitatives et fonctionnelles parle bien de coût. Dans tous les cas, ce cout doit être financé par la personne publique, au fil de l eau en puisant sur ses ressources budgétaires ou de façon lissée en recourant au marché financier. Pour autant, il n y a là ni une profession de foi ultralibérale, ni une confiance naïve dans la qualité des mécanismes financiers. Au contraire, un contrat de partenariat se doit d être extrêmement précis en terme d exigences, sans marge d appréciation quant au résultat à obtenir et en ne laissant au partenaire que la liberté des moyens. C est une approche fonctionnelle exacerbée de l acte de construire, dans laquelle la dimension architecturale peut prendre toute sa place, à condition de prendre des précautions contractuelles adaptées. 257

49 LES USAGERS, RESSOURCE ET DESTINATAIRES DU PROJET 258

50 Restructuring of Building and Facilities management based on the influence of end user preferences, - preliminary results of a current research project - Wim Pullen, Center for People and Buildings Delft (phone , or [email protected]) Introduction The research on building use and the feedback of building user experiences to planners and architects is extensive. Yet the consistent and longitudinal application of methods to create a database of case study datasets in order to develop evidence in the field of people, work and their workplace environment requires perseverance and continued funding. The Center for People and Buildings in the Netherlands developed methods to obtain consistent and intertemporal end user information in different case studies (Volker van der Voordt, 2005). The Workplace Diagnosis Instrument (WODI) Toolkit consists of four elements: the space utilization monitor SUM to measure occupancy rates, the Workplace Diagnosis Tool WODI, its later-derived quick scan version WODI- Light for measuring end user satisfaction and the Satisfaction Indicator which enables organizations to compare the satisfaction scores for their own building to the average of all other buildings measured using WODI light. The WODI methods are being applied in the Netherlands and Canada in the period The total number of respondents is (February 2008) 4000 in 30 cases. Data are stored allowing us to do cross case analysis producing numerous insights. Those vary from what end users consider important with respect to work and workplace satisfaction to the influence of the workplace for labor productivity (Batenburg, van der Voordt 2008, de Been 2008). Analysis of the case studies allow us to derive to a better understanding of knowledge about how end-user preferences supports the facility manager in his role as compared to general managers and HR managers Assumptions and background We assume that due to societal and organizational trends (e.g.horizontalization) different actors more than ever will raise their voices when it comes to development, use and maintenance of the workplace. Traditional institutions like unions giving voice to the employee are replaced by direct democracy in the organization through Internet based employee questionnaires or panels. Many organizations are in the process of reinventing their workplace strategies. The reinvention process covers numerous topics: workplace learning, roles and responsibilities in HR, teleworking, communications etc. Many different actors are involved and managers are due to a shortage of knowledge workers increasingly aware of the necessity to deal with opinions and perceptions of employees. This understanding allows end users to participate in workplace development and decision making through surveys, questionnaires, focus groups and other participative methods. 259

51 We assume that a structured documentation of data will allow researchers to analyze and develop reasoning and argumentation patterns that are evidence based. It is therefore that we conduct case studies and apply different reasoning methods: (i) deductive, (ii) inductive, and (iii) abductive, (iv) analogous (Hanekamp, Volker Pullen 2007). In this article we will report some findings of a case study in one of the Dutch Universities dealing with the inductive approach. Here are our premises and initial conclusion. 1. End-user opinions about the workplace are becoming more and more explicit 2. If managers take their employees/end users serious, institutional changes are likely to happen 3. Managers are confronted with a structured presentation of end user opinions 4. Conclusion: institutional changes in the workplace domain are happening. The context i.e. the institutional setting is described in the next section Context for theory and practice In the Center for People and Buildings we frame research questions in the domain of people, work and their workplace environment in two different ways (1) according to the interests of actors and (2) according to a theoretical approach framing theories or developing research tools and methods. In the present case study of a University department we started the work assuming that there are four stakeholders: the university board, the concern controller, the end user department and the corporate real estate department. Assumed interests, information needs and key decisions of the actors are listed in table 1. ACTOR INTEREST INFORMATION-needs DECISIONS University Board Public Image of the Attraction of high How to play the university performing researchers; role of the best attracting of students employer Concern control Optimal allocation Financial performance of Make or Buy? of budgets; real estate; Accountability Market value of property End user Functional, safe and Ho to do our work the best Where to work: at /Department: healthy workplace we can. How to use the home, in the office? Employees, students environment workplace -environment? CRE departement Efficient and How do buildings perform: How to provide Effective Real technical, functional and workplaces for estate portfolio economical? changing which serves the organizations interests of all stakeholders Table 1 Actors, interests, information needs and key decisions 260

52 The demand for research was framed by the maintenance manager within the CRE department: How does knowledge of end user appreciation of the building influence the maintenance strategy? The research project: questions and method The maintenance manager approached the managing director of a University department. The latter acted as the representative of the end user department and showed a keen interest in the project because from his point of view the outcome of the research could be of use in his negotiations with the CRE department and subsequently with the University Board. The reason was that a user satisfaction survey of the work environment had never taken place. The CRE department could not imagine what the outcomes should be and how these would affect the CRE strategy and the maintenance strategy in particular. An explorative research design was set up consisting of several steps. The actual maintenance strategy was based on condition measurements and definition of priority measures according to the budgets available. It was as Vijverberg describes A maintenance action plan is drawn up on the basis of inspection results. The starting point for this plan is often simply the technical need for maintenance, the assumption being made that the building will continue to be used for a great many years. We found that this assumption proves to be false in the light of the CRE strategy of this university. There will be a planned change realizing a new campus in the year In the light of this long range plan some questions were important to answer: (1) given the changes of the new campus is it a logical assumption that this department keeps using this building, if yes how many years? And (2) what maintenance measures should be taken with respect to end user satisfaction and both technical an economical value? The starting point of data collection is the WODI toolkit that consisting of (1) a user satisfaction survey, (2) measurement of occupancy rates, (3) and a student satisfaction survey. To collect end user opinions we used the WODI light, an internet based questionnaire. Data of the case study are compared to outcomes of other case studies on the basis of average values for user satisfaction and user dissatisfaction for 19 variables varying from satisfaction with work, organization as well as variables linked to workplace features and supporting facilities. For measuring occupancy rates we use the CfPB tool Space Utilization Monitor (SUM) including structured walkthrough each hour on 7 working days from 8.30 AM to 4.30 PM. A specific student s questionnaire was developed to obtain data on the use, preferences and satisfaction of students of their building. A theoretical framework was developed trying to link maintenance data to end user satisfaction outcomes opening the debate on questions like the following: What will be the effect on employee s concentration when a run out VAC system stops making noise? Will more employees return to the office under these new silent circumstances to meet peers and students? 261

53 Will improved energy performance of building installations cause more users to be satisfied with then building? Will high quality condition scores of building parts improve user satisfaction? One of the hypotheses was that there is a relationship between condition scores and user satisfaction rating. Three possibilities are given in figure 1. Maintenance measures are interventions with different possible outcomes. User Satisfaction Hig h Lo w Hig h Maintenance Condition figure 1: Hypothetical relationship between condition scores and user satisfaction At least they intend to improve the technical condition expressed in a higher condition score. They also create an effect on user satisfaction: Improved condition: no effect on user satisfaction Improved condition: equal improvement in user satisfaction Improved condition: lower user satisfaction The starting point however was the actual situation of the building and the perceptions of end users expressed in satisfaction ratings. Here we present some of the outcomes Data and outcomes Space measurement The average occupancy rate of workplace never exceeded 31%, meaning that on average of the day 69% of the workplaces were unoccupied. Other places like meeting rooms, library had an average occupancy of 42%. Some results are given in figures 2 and

54 Figure 2 Occupancy rates of workplaces Figure 3 Occupancy rates of others spaces Employee satisfaction measurement The WODI measurement showed that people are very satisfied with their work (85%), the IT infrastructure and support (95%) and opportunities for communication with peers and students (80%). Yet there is low satisfaction on Indoor Climate (13%), Architecture and image of the building (20%) and quality of the interior design (32%). Dissatisfaction rates were consistent with the low satisfaction rates. 263

55 Functionality of the workplace indoor climate and possibilities to concentrated work were rated as the most important aspects of the building. Architecture and filing infrastructure were the least important. Creating two graphs (1) importance vs. satisfaction and (2) importance vs. dissatisfaction acted as eye-openers for the discussion with the stakeholders (figures 4, 5 and 6). Figure 4 Employee satisfaction in percentages, n=

56 Figure 5 Importance of different variables of workplace Satisfaction (%) ICT en ondersteunende diensten en Communicatiemogelijkheden Ligging van de Dienstverlening Privacy en Het archief en de opslagmogelijkheden Architectuur en uitstraling Bereikbaarheid van het gebouw Openheid en transparantie van de werkomgeving Externe Hoeveelheid diversiteit en functionaliteit van de Inbreng in de werkomgeving Indeling van het gebouw De sfeer en uitstraling van het interieur Concentratiemogelijkheden Importance (count) Figure 6 Importance vs satisfaction (partly in Dutch) Student satisfaction measurement 265

57 Student rated their separate spaces between 6,4 and 7,1 (on a 1-10 scale, 1 is low 10 is high). Yet their overall judgment on the building as a whole was 5,9. Discussion of outcomes Facts and figures understood Facts and figures were presented by the researchers in an interactive workshop with stakeholders: CRE department and the managing director of the department. The following the questions were asked: (1) What did we find, (2) what does it mean, (3) do we understand and (4) can we explain the outcomes? All stakeholders recognized the results: Low occupancy rates are explained through an active HR policy allowing faculty to work at home. Faculty came in to teach classes, to meet with students. Formal staff meetings turned out to be unpopular (low rates of meeting rooms). High satisfaction rates with work were explained through highly motivated staff having autonomy to create their own outcomes and work arrangements. High IT satisfaction was explained as the result of one of the policy to attract staff, not because of the great building but because of the great IT infrastructure and support. Low satisfaction on climate and architecture are explained by the building type. The building consists of semi permanent housing, of over 40 years old. Although the environment is very green the interior looks desolate and is depressing. In search for meaning During the workshop a couple of interesting things happened. The question turned up what to do about the outcomes. The managing director of the department, accountable to the University Board for efficient occupation of the building, raised the question whether the low occupancy in his building was representative for all university departments. His fear was that once the university controller became aware of the occupancy figures, a cost cutting target (space reduction) was given to him. This would force him to go back to his faculty and staff telling that a new workplace strategy should be put in place. That was not a good moment while the department was undergoing a major restructuring. He also noticed that satisfaction rates with the building would not go up when the technical condition of the indoor climate system was raised: employees would never give working from home, and an investment in the climate installations would be qualified as a poor and expensive investment in a rundown building. The CRE department agreed that the measurement of other buildings would be necessary to make a more consistent proposal to the University board with respect to space usage. Measurements will take place in three other buildings in spring of When it came to prioritize maintenance measures the matrices (1) importance vs. satisfaction and (2) importance vs. dissatisfaction helped quite a lot. No major climate works were carried out, just some works to keep installations going. Final remarks All participants found that the measurements helped in creating a meaningful debate and to rethink roles in the CRE arena. The CRE department understood the end user, was able to make a good maintenance plan and develops a roadmap for reviewing is 266

58 University CRE strategy on the basis of the measurements that will be carried out. In the Dutch interuniversity CRE platform this university is in the forefront of creating an integrated approach. The managing director was helped in framing his tasks and timing: how to develop demand for workplaces form a true HR an educational perspective. Literature De Been, I. (2008) Aging in workplace, a cross case statistical analysis of 26 WODI cases, Center for People and Buildings, Delft (to be published) De Bruyne, E. And W.R. Pullen (2007), Onderzoek: gebruikswaarde en tevredenheidnorm van het Paviljoen, Center for People and Buildings, Delft Hanekamp, J.C., L.Volker and W.R. Pullen (2007) Probing Procedures: Strategies in (Scientific) Research and Research into (Management) Strategies - (Scientific) Methodologies and Research into the Interactions between Humans, their Work, and Workplace Environments, Vijverberg, G. (2000) 'Basing maintenance needs on accommodation policy', Building Research & Information, 28:1, Batenburg, R., Voordt, D. J.M. van der (2007), Invloed van facilitybeleving op arbeidsproductiviteit (2), Facility Management Magazine, december

59 Evidence-based workplace design and the role of end-user participation M.Maarleveld, researcher at the Center for People and Buildings, in Delft. INTRODUCTION Since 2003, the Center for People and Buildings in Delft (CfPB) has been systematically collecting data about employee satisfaction in the work environment, using the Workplace Diagnosis Instrument (hereafter referred to as WODI) toolkit (Maarleveld, Volker and Van Der Voordt 2008). Data collected in this manner is then applied to the development phase of an office concept. The CfPB has developed and tested instruments in areas such as formulation of goals and preconditions (Hartjes et al 2008), workplace needs (van Meel et al 2006, Koppejan 2007) and workplace use (Martens et al 2008). All of these instruments require a greater or lesser degree of participation by the end users. This article describes the effects of various forms of participation for the facility manager and the workplace designer, using a project utilised as a case study by the CfPB, as well as descriptions of the participation and the various instruments. Participation, theory and advantages Who, what and why Participation simply means taking part in something. In this case, that 'something' is workplace making. The word 'participation' implies that people are involved, but it does not indicate which people or their degree of participation. De Swart (2001 in Bruyne 2007) states that there are various forms of participation, both in terms of the people involved as well as their degree of involvement. Swart uses the term 'direct participation' when all end-users participate in the change process. If only a select group of representatives of the end-users are involved, the term 'indirect participation' is used. Swart uses four terms to describe the degree of participation: knowing, talking, thinking and deciding. There are two reasons for participation in most renovation and new construction projects: increasing employee satisfaction with the final product, utilising the knowledge and expertise of the end users' needs and desires. These reasons determine who participates in the development phase of workplace making, and to what degree they do so. In this context, Boedeltje and Graaf (2004) discuss attention for the process and the product. Hoekema et al state that a correct process can result in a positive evaluation, even when the parties do not agree on the product (1998, in Boedeltje and Graaf 2004). This also applies the other way around: the final evaluation of the change can be positive due to one of the forms of involvement. Studies by Edelebos show that participants often emphasise their own contribution and the processing of their contribution in the final result (2000, in Boedeltje and Graaf 2004). A study performed by Tops (1999, in Boedeltje and Graaf 2004) indicates that a successful process is a necessary but not in itself a sufficient condition for a 268

60 successful product. If the process does not run properly, it is usually difficult to achieve the desired result. When the process does run properly, however, this does not in itself guarantee that the product will be successful. The participants' own contribution to the change and the recognition of that contribution in the product seem to play a significant part in the success of the project. Tools for workplace making WODI toolkit The WODI toolkit enables various methods of measuring whether the housing goals have been met, at various times in the process. It also tracks any positive or negative unintended effects. The toolkit consists of four instruments: the WODI standard instrument, the WODI-light instrument, the Space Utilization Monitor (SUM) and the (dis)satisfaction indicator. The first two assess the employees' satisfaction in their work environment. The WODI light examines the main factors, while the WODI standard delves into their underlying aspects. SUM measures the actual use of the workplaces. The (dis)satisfaction indicator enables organisations to compare the satisfaction scores for their own building to the average of all other buildings measured using WODI light. Depending on the goal of the research, one or more of the instruments may be used. The WODI instruments utilise various research methods, such as questionnaires, interviews, group discussions, documentary research and workshops. The employees are invited to give input and to think along with the designers. Figure 1: A page form the WODI-light questionnaire Integrated Workplace Roadmap (IWR) Undesired effects of workplace concepts ( it doesn't work the way we expected it to ) are often caused by poor decision-making in the initial and definition phase of a housing project. IWR 2.0 (Hartjes et al 2008) deals with the process of realising the housing. This model can be used to determine the approach and goals and to identify an appropriate decision-making strategy. It optimizes processes through a systematic focus on the involvement of the various parties. The model makes choices regarding the participation of end users more explicit. 269

61 Workplace game The Workplace game illustrates the change in office users' behaviour in a contemporary and flexible work environment. It brings different consequences of utilising a particular concept to the fore. The Workplace game is a board game in which four to six players walk through an imaginary office. Playing cards pose different multiple-choice questions about common situations in the new office environment. The players are stimulated to form opinions about work-environment situations, to share those opinions and to come up with common solutions. A player first answers the questions individually, and then the Figure 2: Workplace game The Workplace game induces the employees to think about the consequences of their behaviour. They indicate what should and should not be desirable; instead of having management make a rule about desired practices, the employees create a form of etiquette themselves. Playing the workplace game seems to be a simple method for involving employees in the new office housing. The game addresses all four degrees of participation: knowing, talking, thinking and deciding. Application of theory and tools Case study in a large public organisation The instruments listed above have been utilised in a public educational organisation (Maarleveld en Martens 2008). The organisation will move into a new building in 2011, and wants to capitalise on the opportunity to change the way they are housed. The housing of the organisation must be process-oriented; this means that the work environment must be organised based on the work processes and the business processes. The organisation also wishes to achieve a better, more pleasant and less expensive housing solution. In order to elaborate the goals 'better' and 'more pleasant', the organisation has opted for a new construction process with a great deal of employee and management participation. The first step involved three departments creating a pilot environment over the course of one year. The experiences in these three pilots will be taken into consideration in the search for optimal housing for the other departments in the new building. The choices made in the pilots can be evaluated to optimize the housing before realising the larger-scale new construction. Users also get the opportunity to familiarise themselves with a new office concept. 270

62 Each pilot utilised indirect participation. A workgroup was formed consisting of a facility manager and department staff, including the manager. The workgroup was informed about the general goals and preconditions for the housing project. They then formulated department-specific goals based on the IWR. The work processes and activities were mapped out and the workgroup members visited two innovative offices. Using WODI light, they measured the department staff s satisfaction in the old situation. With the help of the (dis)satisfaction indicator and the goals and preconditions for the housing programme, they determined the desired level of satisfaction and acceptable levels of dissatisfaction. Using the information gathered, the work groups and the designer(s) determined the number and type of workplaces needed. The architect then designed the interior, and the designs were presented to the workgroup for correction. The three pilot environments were then realised. The workgroups used the Workplace game to evaluate the use of the new environment (Maarleveld en de Been 2007). At the moment, the departments have been working in their new environments for three months, and the employees experiences will be evaluated using WODI light. The three workgroups for the pilots involved and informed their colleagues in different manners. The end users' acceptance of the work environment differs per pilot. The first pilot workgroup kept their colleagues informed each week and involved them in gathering the data and requests. This resulted in direct participation. Before the work environment was realised and the employees were able to move into their new workplaces, the majority of the department was enthusiastic and willing to start working in the pilot situation. Upon the introduction of the new environment, employees were full of praise for the concept. As such, the process, the content and the final product resulted in satisfaction. Figure 3: Ideas for the workplace made by the pilot department In the second pilot, the process did not go as smoothly. It involved a large department made up of different teams that all do the same work. In the initial phase, it was unclear which team would be housed in the pilot situation, and for a long period it remained unclear who needed to be informed and involved. A workgroup was formed consisting of the department manager and employees who eventually turned out not to be housed in the new environment. The workgroup had a hierarchical culture: the employees were kept informed, allowed to provide input and to propose ideas, but the manager took all 271

63 the decisions. The participation was indirect. The end users of the new concept were only involved in the project immediately before moving into the new office concept. The workgroup used the Workplace game to become familiar with the environment. The support for the new environment was low, and the department was generally dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction diminished slightly, however, after playing the Workplace game, when the department adopted more of a 'wait and see' attitude. This changed dramatically after the team moved into the new concept. The team manager stated that the majority of the employees were happy with their new work environment and its new possibilities. There was no employee participation in this pilot, but due to the involvement by the department employees in the workgroup it was possible to create a final product that the employees were enthusiastic about. In this case, it was the final result that created support Figure 4: Pause area of one of the pilots The third pilot took place in an executive department. The workgroup was enthusiastic about the work, but had difficulty dealing with the freedom they had to gather the necessary information; the members repeatedly made comments stating: 'Just tell us what we have to do, and we'll do it'. The workgroup informed the other department employees about the progress of the project only once per month. During the discussions with the architect about the design, the workgroup found it difficult to focus on the functionality of the concept; the appearance and atmosphere provided by the design distracted their attention from the type and number of workspaces. A minor organisational change occurred during the development of the concept, with consequences for the use of a number of workplaces. As a result, the use of the workplaces no longer matched their original purpose. The outcome of the Workplace game indicated a large difference in the workgroup's acceptance of the new work environment. One third of the employees were very enthusiastic, one third 'would wait and see', and the last third were negative about the concept. The negative group and the enthusiastic group both shrank once the department moved into the new environment. In this pilot, neither the participation process nor the final results were optimal. 272

64 Figure 5: Playing the workplace game with a pilot department Conclusion Employee participation during workplace making appears to influence the office concept as well as the satisfaction with it. The CfPB instruments prove to be effective tools for this process, offering the facility manager support and enabling him/her to gather the appropriate information from the departments. Indirect participation can produce good end results and employee satisfaction, while direct participation has a positive effect on the process. The participation forms of knowing, talking and thinking appear to be necessary to create support, but deciding does not appear to be as necessary as long as the workgroup's ideas and choices can be recognised in the final product. The degree of freedom in participation seems to be dependent on the participants. The facility manager is to be aware of the workgroup members' qualities in order to maximise their input. Focus on the concept corresponding to the workplace needs remains vital to recognition and acceptance of the final result. Bibliography: Boedeltje and de Graaf (2004) Draagvlak nader bekeken Enschede, University of Twente and Utrecht University Bruyne, de E. (2007) Effectieve implementatie van kantoorinnovatie een literatuurstudie Delft, Center for People and Buildings Koppejan (2007) Naar een generiek werkplekmodel Casus Werkplekmodel voor het Kadaster 2007 Delft, Center for People and Buildings Maarleveld, M. en Martens, Y (2008) Procesgericht huisvesten van de Informatiebeheer Groep Delft, Center for People and Buildings Maarleveld, M., Volker, L., & van der Voordt, D.J.M (2008) The Dutch Office Performance Toolkit to be published Maarleveld, M. and de Been, I. (2007) Procesgericht huisvesten, een uitdagend project. Het werkplekspel Rapportage IB-Groep afdeling Examendienst Delft, Center for People and Buildings Maarleveld, M. and de Been, I. (2007) Procesgericht huisvesten, een uitdagend project. Het werkplekspel Rapportage IB-Groep afdeling Projectcontrol, 273

65 opdrachtmanagement en informatiemanagement Delft, Center for People and Buildings Maarleveld, M. and de Been, I. (2007) Procesgericht huisvesten, een uitdagend project. Het werkplekspel Rapportage IB-Groep afdeling IKA Team Delft, Center for People and Buildings Martens, Y., de Bruyne, E. and Maarleveld, M. (2008) Spelen voor een werkende werkomgeving to be published in Facility Management Magazine, March 2008 Meel van, J. Martens, Y., Hofkamp, G., Jonker, D. and Zeegers, A. (2006) Werkplekwijzer ingrediënten voor een effectieve werkomgeving Delft, Center for People and Buildings and the Rijksgebouwendienst Pikker, G.K., Hartjes, A., Chin Kwi Joe, J. (2008) Integrated Workplace Roadmap Leidraad bij het verloop van huisvestingstrajecten Delft, Center for People and Buildings 274

66 Le FM, un concept à préciser Le FM, un concept à préciser et encore trop éloigné des pratiques courantes des projets Pierre Bouchet, Génie des Lieux, France Architecture et Facilities Management La conception face à la montée des services Atelier international avril 2008 Session 3 : les usagers, ressources et destinataires du projet 1 Présentation Directeur associé avec Gérard PINOT de Génie des Lieux, cabinet de programmation et de conseil en stratégie et en organisation des espaces tertiaires depuis 1996, Président de Génie des Lieux Service : space planning, ingénierie du transfert et OPC. Rédacteur en chef de la première newsletter sur les services généraux, Planète Facility ( Intervenant à l IUP Management des Services Université de Marne La Vallée depuis Formation Architecte ENSAIS, École Nationale des Arts et Industrie de Strasbourg, 1986 CEA en Sciences de la conception, École d architecture de La Villette, 1988 DEA en Développement des ressources Humaines CNAM/HEC 1994 Références récentes Charte, space planning, transfert de la tour Granite de la SOCIETE GENERALE à la Défense (4500 p.) Mise en place et accompagnement dans la définition et le test de nouveaux concepts d aménagements et de mobiliers pour Bouygues Telecom en 2008 Programmation, space déménagement du siège du groupe CASINO de 2005 à 2007 (2 800 personnes) Programmation, space planning et transfert de ROSSIGNOL en 2006 (400 personnes) Programmation et space planning du Groupe BERRI en 2005 (300 personnes) Programmation du nouveau siège de la MACIF de 2004 à 2005 (300 personnes) Programmation du siège de la CCI Marseille Provence de 2003 à 2005 (500 poste) Rénovation du centre administratif de LA POSTE à Bonnac de 2002 à 2004 (2 000 personnes) Programmation et rénovation du Ministère des Affaires Sociales de 2003 à 2004 (2000 postes) Aménagement du Groupe de presse EDIPRESSE en Suisse de 2003 à 2004 (400 personnes) Schéma directeur immobilier de LA POSTE Nantes de 2004 à 2005 (2 000 personnes) Accompagnement au changement du Ministère de la Culture en 2004 (1 000 personnes) Programmation des activités de recherche de R&D France TELECOM à Paris (2 500 personnes 2 275

67 Constats En tant que professionnels de l organisation et l aménagement des lieux de travail tertiaires depuis une vingtaine d année, nous faisons aujourd hui trois constats majeurs : De nombreux dysfonctionnements apparaissent pendant les projets et après les emménagements car les utilisateurs n ont pas été associés au processus de conception. Les processus de décision des entreprises clientes ne sont généralement pas cohérents avec les processus des projets immobiliers. Il y a peu de relations entre les professionnels qui conçoivent et construisent les projets, et ceux qui les aménagent et les exploitent. 3 2 propositions 1. Officialiser en amont des processus de conception, la mise en place de démarches de participation et d implication d usagers 2. Définir un label de «conformité aux usages» 4 276

68 Existe-t-il une demande? La valeur économique des lieux de travail augmentant, leur valeur d usage i.e. fonctionnelle - est d autant plus ressentie comme une exigence prioritaire. Exemple de pratiques constatées : Des directions immobilières de grands groupes français demandent à leurs clients internes, les futurs occupants, de définir leurs programmes, avant de construire et réaliser leurs nouveaux environnements immobiliers : Être au plus près des usages réels Valoriser les besoins Anticiper les nouvelles pratiques Quelles références en matière méthodologique? De quels outils dispose-elle? Quelles sont leurs marges de liberté? 5 Quelles sont les conditions? Les dispositifs sont connus, modélisés, mais complexes à mettre en œuvre. Les pratiques et usages ne sont pas uniques, ils se déclinent à tous les niveaux de l entreprise. Il y a nécessité d associer l ensemble des acteurs dans l entreprise. En fonction de leurs responsabilités et de leurs compétences les «usagers» ont des pratiques répondant à différents enjeux : Économique Direction générale Stratégique Politique générale Managérial Managers Organisation Managers et collaborateurs Ergonomique Collaborateurs Psychologique Collaborateurs Définir ensemble les nouvelles pratiques et nouveaux usages 6 277

69 Un dispositif continu et progressif dans l entreprise Directions Métiers Les acteurs sont successivement associés aux décisions, puis animateurs du processus participatif Direction 1- Définition des objectifs Générale de changement, des usages et des règles de Management opérationnel Collaborateurs fonctionnement 2 - Mise en place des objectifs Adaptation des règles selon les usages spécifiques 3 - Définition et mise en place de l organisation opérationnelle 4 Transfert des activités Phase 1 : Définition et faisabilité Phase 2 : Organisation et conception Phase 3 : Réalisation et suivi Phase 4 : Transfert des activités Phase 5 : Suivi de l organisation et mobilité 5 Suivi et ajustement des règles en fonction de l évolution de l environnement 7 Les difficultés majeures L entreprise fonctionne dans des processus de décision de plus en plus courts, trop éloignés des cycles de construction et d aménagement beaucoup plus longs et contraignants. L entreprise se voit fréquemment contrainte d accepter des solutions immobilières non adaptées à ses besoins Le consensus est très difficile à atteindre pour mettre en place un processus impliquant l ensemble des acteurs dans l entreprise, Si une catégorie de personnel ne joue pas le jeu, c est l échec. Il y a nécessité de mettre en place une démarche complémentaire d accompagnement au changement, en parallèle du processus de concertation, pour favoriser l émergence de solutions différentes plus adaptées aux nouvelles exigences de l environnement actuel de l entreprise : processus de déconstruction et de reconstruction Ne pas anticiper, à l occasion d un projet immobilier ou de réaménagement, c est risquer pendant quelques années de rester dans un environnement ne permettant pas l émergence de nouvelles pratiques liées par exemple aux évolutions sociales ou technologiques

70 4 exemples de projet Chambre de Commerce et d Industrie, sud de la France Programme de construction pour le regroupement de l ensemble des activités formation, accueil, administratif, support aux entreprises, centre de ressources (500 p.) «Un outil de travail et de vie pour tous» Groupe français d assurance, ouest de la France Programme de construction pour un nouveau centre de gestion administratif (800 p.) «Sans aucun interdit, sans contrainte» Groupe de presse, Suisse Programme de réaménagement pour le plateau idéal de rédaction, suite à des changements technologiques (3 * 130 p.) «Partir de la page blanche» Un Ministère, Paris Programme de réaménagement pour la rénovation des plateaux de bureau (2 400 p.) Démarche officielle de concertation auprès de l ensemble des agents pour définir les bureaux rénovés 9 Exemple de démarche sur la CCI La programmation a défini le concept de Module spatial affecté à une unité organisationnelle cohérente : Affectée indifféremment à une unité de travail selon les nécessités Regroupant des collaborateurs travaillant sur un même projet Partageant les mêmes objectifs Regroupant des collaborateurs ayant le même métier/expertise Partageant les mêmes pratiques, savoir-faire, Sous la responsabilité d un manager Partageant les même liens hiérarchiques

71 CIBLES Cible 01 : relation harmonieuse bâtiments av ec e nvironnement immédiat Cible 02 : choix intégré des procédés de construction DEFINITION DE LA HIERARCHIE DES CIBLES Besoin du Maître d'ouvrage Analyse site Sélection finale proposée Très Très Très Performant Base Performant Base Performant Performant Performant Performant X X X O O O Cible 03 : chantie r à faibles nuis ances O O O Cible 04 : gestion énergie X O X Cible 05 : gestion de l ea u O X O Cible 06 : gestion de s déchets d activité O O O Cible 07 : entretien et maintenance O O O Cible 08 : confort hygrothermique X x X Cible 09 : confort acoustique O O O Cible 10 : confort visuel X O X Cible 11 : confort olfactif O O O Cible 12 : conditions sanitaires O O O O Cible 13 : qualité de l air O O O Cible 14 : qualité de l eau O O O Mode de lecture des résultats : X Traitement Très Performant O Traitement Performant O Traiteme nt Base Base Limite parcelle Réseau viaire existant Voie réalisées Fossés sur voirie Voirie intérieure Réserve ruisseau PLU Ruisseau Bâtiment projet Bâtiment futur Voirie cyclable Garage cycles Stationnement projet Stationnement futur Lignes HT Lignes MT Accès viaire Pylones HT et MT Central EDF Accès principal possible Accès secondaires Exemple de résultat sur le Groupe d Assurance Un lieu de communication et de vie Créer une «centralité» et éviter de disposer de circulation trop en longueur. Disposer de plateaux de bureaux continus. Regrouper les noyaux et les locaux techniques indépendamment des plateaux de bureaux. 51 m 19,5 m 16 m 16 m m² Des pratiques environnementales fortement souhaitées Un programme HQE à «énergie positive» 11 Exemple de résultat sur le Groupe d Assurance La situation existante : un environnement évalué «chaotique» par les collaborateurs Des ateliers de travail ont permis d apprécier, de préciser de nouvelles références collectivement, et de construire un référentiel commun

72 Locaux de Locaux de réception de AUXILAIRES proximité de proximité Culture Ecopol Marketing Cross médias WE Sport Café Récep. Sport Cab. Cab. Région Cahiers Régionaux Politique Vaudoise Ecopol Management Cab. Cab. 2 postes d'adjoints Services Cuis. Culture Conférence Crossmédia Visuel Récep. Cop. Cab. Ca b. Secrétariat Visuel Cab. Cab. Ca fé Visuel Régions Services WE Politique Vaudois Cahiers Régionaux Services Exemple de résultat sur le Groupe de Presse Une organisation cible centrée sur le processus de production, du cœur de décision aux activités supports et annexes 1. Le cœur de production 2. Le centre de production 3. Les activités de supports 4. Les activités communes 5. Les activités externalisées TV Des nouvelles pratiques collectives : un poste de travail mobilier collectif, le «bench» 13 Exemple de résultat sur le Ministère Une concertation sans directive, sans arbitrage a reconduit le modèle d organisation et d aménagement existant Ex : 95% de bureaux individuels Démarche «inutile», car aujourd hui cette solution est incompatible avec les enjeux économiques et donc remise en cause Incompréhension des agents qui avaient été interrogés 6,30 m 4,00 + 2,30 4,70 m

73 Conclusion - quels indicateurs pour un label «qualité»? Économique Ex : rendement SUN/SUL Stratégique Ex : ratio m²/éloignement Managérial Ex : flexibilité aménagement ouvert / cloisonné Organisation Ex : flexibilité aménagement espace individuel / équipe Ergonomique Ex : Environnement, luminosité acoustique, couleur Psychologique Ex : éléments constitutif du bien être appropriation, Programmation immobilière Programmation de construction Programmation d aménagement Programmation mobilier

74 Attention! There are users in the facilities Lindahl, Göran Associate Professor, Ph.D, M.Sc. Arch Building Economics and Management Chalmers University of Technology SE Göteborg SWEDEN Contact information: tel Abstract The field of FM and real estate is continuously challenged to utilize the experiences from the users in the planning of facilities and establishing of services related to facilities. The outmost challenge is to become an active part in the organizational development of the client. To do this there however needs to be a long term relationship that allows for such interaction. The question raised is how FM professionals can achieve design solutions, and usability and functionality of premises that meet the users requirement and how close to the organizations activities an FM organization can get. To achieve design solutions that are state of the art can be achieved already today, but to deliver usable and efficient facilities requires a process where the users are enabled to own their premises and where the FM-provider is professional in managing the meeting between core activities and FM processes. The paper, based on a case study of a hospital design project, discuss the process of establishing a relationship between the FM processes and the organizational development of health care processes. The result indicate that there needs to be a process for this integration established already in the organizational development to prevent gaps to occur between on one hand the staff involved in organizational development and those who are not and between the ones involved in developing the premises and those who are not. Introduction The field of FM and real estate is continuously challenged to utilize the experiences from the users in the planning of facilities and establishing of services related to facilities. To ensure a proper match between organization and facilities is a key target in order to achieve good business performance. This can be addressed in several ways; one is through establishing long term relationships as in the public sector where there usually is a client and a user organization that continually cooperate over time or in the private sector with clients having units or departments that are professional in acting as a client whether it concerns refurbishment, maintenance or building new facilities. The outmost challenge for the FM organization is to become an active part in the organizational development of the client and thus be able to continuously facilitate the 283

75 appropriate premises for business activities. This approach extends further than simply providing facilities or facility services, this concerns the ability of the FM organization to be one of several competencies when development of the business is concerned and to understand its role in the process. To achieve a position as an FM supplier integrated in the clients organisation there needs to be a long term relationship that allows for such interaction, a relationships that is based on trust and an understanding from both parties that business performance and the quality of it is related to both quantitative/functional and the qualitative/experience based aspects of the facility (Hinnerson, Lindahl & Malmqvist 2006). There are a number of obvious relationships between functional aspects of facilities and business performance that always to various degrees have effect on performance like physical space, technology, light etc. However the more knowledge regarding the business processes that is brought into the process the more capabilities the FM supplier must have, from functional and rational knowledge to understanding of usability and pragmatic aspects of facilities (Granath & Alexander 2006). A question for the field of FM is how FM professionals can achieve design solutions, and functionality and usability of premises that meet the users requirements and how close to the organizational development activities an FM organization can get. There is after all often a supply-demand relationship between FM supplier and clients. To achieve design solutions that are state of the art and functional is possible, but to deliver usable and efficient facilities requires a process where the user s processes are mediated into the design solutions. The health care facility setting Health care facilities are often planned with a long term perspective by teams that consist of representatives from a large number of professional fields. It is not uncommon that the public health care has organisations that focus on provision of facilities for health care and that these have a counterpart in a planning group within the health care organisation. In Sweden the counties have facility providers, usually in a service organisation that works together with the hospital in maintaining and monitoring of the facilities. These organisations then produce new premises based on needs defined by the hospitals. In the process of definition the challenge is to make the staff in the health care processes meet the staff that provides the facilities. This is in general done through representatives. A large number of people involved in this process, first there are two parallel user groups, staff and patients that depend on each other for meeting the goals set for the health care processes. In addition to this there are the stakeholders from financing authorities, county-boards, planning departments etc. as well as the stakeholders at the different hospitals such as doctors, nurses and other staff that form a part of the organisational structure with its power and cultural layers. The process of delivering health care facilities is also often affected by goals set also by processes outside health care. Political and financial agendas in the decision-making process limit or allow for different solutions and approaches. What is possible to do in one town may not be able to de done in another, the example below concerning one 284

76 person bed rooms is from a town only one hour away from another town, in the same county, that deemed the one-room solution not feasible and therefore choose three person bed rooms. The medical and organizational processes in health care continuously develop and consequently do their need of facilities. Often changes have been discussed and evaluated before the facility providers enter the arena. The development project is then in a late/final stage for the health care staff and an early stage for the facility providers. This mismatch needs to be addressed in order to achieve a more integrated FM of health care facilities that manage to support organisational development rather than providing facilities once the development process is completed. The SÄS case and ward unit 2010 In the year 2000 the LIFT-project (Management of improvement and use of methods in health care organisations) started at Södra Älvsborgs Sjukhus, SÄS. This was an organisational development project aiming at developing the key processes of health care into a new way of working. One of the starting points for the LIFT-project was an approach based on a patient focused care where the health care processes should govern the experience of the patient rather than which organizational unit of the hospital that provides the specific health care sub-process. Based on this, principles regarding work procedures and organisation developed of which key aspects were team orientation and self steering multidisciplinary teams. This was described as the concept ward unit A key feature of this concept was the ward with single bed rooms (Södra Älvsborgs Sjukhus 2005). In 2002 the general plan for the hospital was presented and identified several possible locations for building a new building. This plan only looked at the hospital on building level and did not focus specific design of wards and units. The need for new buildings had its background in the refurbishments done in the ies where the density of the hospital site had increased at the same time as old buildings were demolished. This had led to a situation were most of the health care activities now were housed in buildings from the 1960-ies. After the refurbishments in these buildings were not considered capable of further changes and refurbishment to meet future demands from health care with new technologies and processes. Once they need to be refurbished in 15 to 20 years there has to be new solutions. In the general plan, based on the aforementioned standpoint, a new hospital building was considered as necessary to substitute old buildings. It was also decided that this should be a building adjoined to existing buildings. In 2003 the location was decided to be adjoining the main building of the hospital. It was also stated that the new building should contribute to the vision of The attractive hospital based on the values Patient Focused Care, professionalism and completeness (Västfastigheter 2005). The brief for the new building was completed in During 2004 and 2005 there was parallel design processes by different architects that resulted in the choice of one design 285

77 that was described as a design characterized by a design that supports team work and has the possibility to a large number of single bed rooms. Furthermore it gave a great development potential in a straightforward building. It was also stated in 2005 that The process orientation puts new demands on the physical design of the health care premises. This was an indication, in addition to the statement of number of beds, that the whole building and not only the bed rooms were related to the new processes initiated by the LIFT-project. After the parallel design processes were completed a design processes started. In 2006 existing buildings were torn town and in 2007 the construction work started and the construction project was managed as a partnering project. In 2007 there was also two mock-up rooms built of the one patient room. These were in the basement in a building five minutes walk away from the hospital and were used for testing but did not achieve the effect of being a place were staff regularly came by to reflect on the new design and work processes. The new hospital building is planned for opening in the beginning of Until the beginning of 2008 the process had been a straightforward linear process taking one step at a time. Initiated by LIFT and the questions raised by the general plan the need for a new building was established. This was then described in the brief that was the starting point for the subsequent parallel design processes and final design. All of these steps involving the usual suspects of hospital board, head doctors, medical staff participating in the development of the new processes of work, representatives of staff, patients, technical staff, the facilities provider Västfastigheter and consultants. In 2008, while construction is ongoing, the process of preparing the organisation for moving into the new building was stopped. It was found by the project team, consisting of both a group from the hospital and a group from the facility provider, that the complete staff did not fully understand the concept with one person bed rooms and the impact it would have on their future work and how the new facility was planned to support that. They also found that there still were different opinions among staff and that more information and communication was needed. This was due to mainly two things, one: that the staff was too caught up with everyday work and their current situation and, two: the project team had not. There was a gap between the end user, the represented, and the users that participated in the planning and design process, the representatives. To manage this issue a former nurse involved in development work at the hospital got the assignment to join the project team and to start the process of getting all currently employed staff to start preparing for moving in. Two measures were taken, firstly, the heads of units were appointed to allow for the teams to organize, and secondly, the process of working along the principles of the new process already at their current work stations was initiated. 286

78 What happened? analysis and discussion So why did the process stop, why were the end users lost in the process and how come the project team discovered it? In interviews with the project team it was clear that they understood that there had been information disseminated but no checking of how this information was perceived. As the hospital organisation is large they had relied on the usual channels they used for other information and on the representatives. The changes to come were however bigger and they had not broken the barrier of everyday work. One could ask why such a classic problem still occurs and the answer is, by analysis of interviews, that the project team s mindset was on ward unit 2010 as a concept in the LIFT-project and that they probably thought most staff had appropriated the concept as part of participating in the LIFT project which also concerned other changes. In the development of the ward unit 2010 and the new hospital building the core of project team was relatively small and stayed the same for a long period. As the new hospital design was following the vision of the LIFT project they assumed that the others, the rest of the staff in the organisation, was content. The main stakeholders in the project were thus the ones that were involved, no extended participation was carried out. One could ask if this was not a good thing with a small group running the project making the process effective. When interviewing it was found that it was mostly the staff that accepted the vision of the one room solution that had participated. It was also found that even if the concept ward unit 2010 met all state of the art criteria regarding staff/patient interaction, exposure to infections etc it could have been discussed more in order to bring the discussion into coffee breaks and everyday social interaction among staff. As it turned out it became a discussion within the group, albeit large, of representatives. The design of the new facilities was developed based on the vision of ward unit 2010 and as the quotation above stated The process orientation puts new demands on the physical design of the health care premises. The location of the mock-up rooms in another building to the hospital however made the design discreet, staff knew about it but could not visualize it and support discussions based regular visits to the mock up rooms on their way to and from other activities. The design, which is a crucial part of the new concept, was thus not as present in a concrete way. With a hospital full of users not used to drawings the mock up rooms did not become the physical representations, symbols, for the new hospital that would have supported communication and reactions to the work processes. Looking at the project one could ask if it could have been done differently. Should more staff have been involved earlier in the project, should the design have been more clearly expressed? In the process there developed a knowledge gap between the represented and the representatives, not one of obvious power but of knowledge and understanding what the new work process really should be like and in what environment they should take place. The case show through the recent processes that it needed to reach a critical closeness to the completion in order to establish a broad engagement from staff and to initiate planning for the near future in the forthcoming teams. The difficulty is to find that 287

79 moment in time when it is not too early for staff to be interested and not to late to create a feeling of having been left behind. This process of is important since there is a risk that state of the art facilities are deemed less usable even though they meet criteria that could have enabled the staff to develop their organization, work processes and health care quality. Conclusion Attention to the users is a process that needs to be managed during a project. A good idea does not survive on its own, nor does a good design. The FM processes need to also include the process of participating in organizational development in order to realize the potential support to core activities strived for. It is not about maximizing the number of participants, rather it is about finding the integration between facilities and health care processes. FM organizations are likely to support this but need also to understand the health care processes it is not only about asking what the client need. It is about provision of knowledge to the client. There is much research on health care processes but not much on the effect the facilities have on these processes. We know ergonomic and physical criteria but not much about usability and the way staff and patient experience the facilities related to care processes. Attention to the user situation can thus be developed by FM-providers and their clients/end users to allow better use of the facilities. References (N.B, not yet complete) Alexander K., Atkin B., Bröchner, J., and Haugen T. (2004). Facilities management: Innovation and performance. Spoon Press: London. Fröst, P. (2004) Designdialoger i tidiga skeden: arbetssätt och verktyg för kundengagerad arbetsplatsutformning. Diss. Chalmers tekniska högskola, Arkitektur. Göteborg: Chalmers tekniska högskola. Granath, J.Å. and Alexander, K. (2006) A theoretical reflection on the practice of designing for usability. European Facility Management Conference in Frankfurt 2006 Granath J.Å., Hinnerson J. and Lindahl G. (2005) Case study: Örebro University Hospital: O-building. Report from CIB TG51 Usability of workplaces. Swedish workshop. Gothenburg, Sweden, Chalmers University of Technology. Granath, J.Å., Lindahl, G. & Rehal, S. (1996). From Empowerment to Enablement: An evolution of new dimensions in participatory design. Logistik und Arbeit, no. 8, Hinks, J. (2004) Business related performance measures for Facilities management in Facilities management: Innovation and performance edited by Alexander K., Atkin B., Bröchner, J., and Haugen T. (2004).. Spoon Press: London Hinnerson, J., Lindahl, G. & Malmqvist, I. (2006) From organization to actor: the process of achieving usable facilities in the healthcare sector. Conference paper to CIB-conference in Rome, October

80 Hinnerson, J., Lindahl G. & Granath, J.Å. (2006) Performance in provision of facilities: A study of buildings in the healthcare sector. Conference paper to CIB W70 in Trondheim June Lindahl, G. & Ryd, N. et al (2006) Arbetsrapport inom ramen för FoU-projektet Verksamhetsutveckling för framgångsrikt byggande/best practice projektet. Delprojekt 11 Mätområde performance/projektmål. [Organizational development for sucessful construction] Lindahl, G. & Granath, J.Å. (2006) Culture and Usability. Conference paper to CIB W70 Trondheim international symposium June 2006 in Trondheim, Norway. Lindahl G., Hinnerson J. & Granath, J.Å. (2005) Trust, Participation and Hospital Design: Two Approaches One Result. Conference paper to CIB W70 Facilities Management Symposium, June 2005, Helsinki. Södra Älvsborgs Sjukhus (2005) Uppdrag 7:2, utformning och organisation av SÄS generella vårdenhet [Assignment 7:2, Design and organisation of SÄS general ward unit 2010] Västfastigheter (2005) programhandling för Ny Byggnad 14, Södra Älvsborgs Sjukhus. [Design brief for Södra Älvsborgs Hospital] 289

81 LA MONTEE DES SERVICES : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITES POUR LES ACTEURS DE LA CONCEPTION 290

82 La conception architecturale : entre exigences managériales et usages. Philippe Meurice, DEGW, Paris La place grandissante accordée à la gestion du patrimoine et des services immobiliers, illustrée par le développement croissant de la notion, encore floue, du Facilities Management (FM), a modifié et continue de modifier le contexte et les pratiques de conception architecturale. En effet, la montée des services, l attention de plus en plus importante portée aux utilisateurs mais aussi les nouveaux enjeux économiques liés à l aménagement de l espace tend à redistribuer les positions et les rôles des acteurs de la conception. En tant qu architecte concepteur et space planneur, nous avons vu nos prérogatives se modifiées au cours du temps et notre démarche confortée vers la prise en compte prépondérante des notions de services et d usages sur la conception «pure». Néanmoins, cette distinction n est pas complètement neuve pour nous. En effet, nous avons construit notre approche de la conception sur la prise en compte des usages et des situations de travail qui en découlent. Ainsi notre démarche s assimile davantage à un travail de traduction spatiale de la vision des collaborateurs qu à une mission de pure conception. A l heure où les notions de services, de qualité, d usage, de confort, de bien-être mais aussi d image et de marque dominent et guident les processus de conception, notre processus de conception se voit conforter. L espace de travail se veut le catalyseur de la vision de chacun de ses utilisateurs. Cette approche de la conception architecturale assigne aux cabinets d architecture, tels que nous, une prérogative majeure : la médiation entre exigences managériales et usages. En effet, la montée des services fait du processus de conception architecturale une véritable retranscription d une part, du projet d entreprise tourné vers les notions de rationalisation des coûts et d économie, et d autre part, des attentes des utilisateurs. L objet de cette contribution sera donc de montrer comment cette mission de médiation s inscrit dans le processus de conception architecturale. Pour se faire, nous nous appuierons sur deux exemples concrets illustrant le poids de plus en plus important de cette médiation au sein de nos missions : le cas de l aménagement du nouveau siège social de Philips France à Suresnes dénommé projet Verdi et celui du réaménagement d un immeuble de bureau destiné à l accueil des services de la ville de Paris, avenue de France dans le quartier de la ZAC Rive Gauche. Le premier illustrera la prise en compte des besoins des utilisateurs et leur nécessaire implication au sein du processus de conception dès la phase amont du projet. Le second témoignera de cette prépondérance qui émerge aussi dans les marchés publics des notions de qualité d usage entérinée par les notions émergentes que sont la «maîtrise d usage» et la «Haute Qualité d Usage». 291

83 Impliquer les utilisateurs en amont du projet : les outils et méthodes mis en œuvre au sein du projet Verdi de Philips. L'objectif du projet est de regrouper à l'été 2008, 1500 employés issus de différents sites du groupe sur un vaste terrain de m2 au cœur de Suresnes (92), doté de m2 de bureaux, dont m2 dédiés au seul siège social du groupe. Parmi les contraintes du projet : la réalisation d'un plan d'économie de 300 millions d'euros sur 5 ans, la rationalisation du portefeuille immobilier, la standardisation des process de facilities management et le déploiement de «l'innovative workplace» : passer de 10 à 80 % d'open space, de 26 à 15m2 bruts de surface de travail, et d'un ratio bureaux un pour un à un taux d'occupation de 1,2 personne par poste de travail. L économie constituait ici la motivation première du projet. Ainsi les enjeux qui se sont imposés au responsable du projet mais aussi à notre équipe étaient : comment faire accepter le changement et comment concilier vision de l entreprise et attentes des utilisateurs? Conscients de cet enjeu, nous avons donc proposé à Philips de mener une mission d accompagnement au changement en amont de notre mission de space planning. Cette mission avait pour but d impliquer les utilisateurs mais aussi les directeurs de chacune des directions de Philips France dans le processus de programmation et de conception. Pour se faire, un large travail de médiation mais aussi de communication a été mené. Celui-ci avait pour objectif principal d impliquer les utilisateurs en amont du projet et donc d éviter tout blocage ou contestation au cours des phases de réalisation suivantes. Dans ce cadre, nous avons recensé les besoins et les attentes de chacun des utilisateurs et nous les avons confrontés aux objectifs définis par la direction. Ces phases amont du projet, que nous dénommons «Plan qualité» et «Programmation», consistaient non seulement à faire converger la vision des utilisateurs avec celle de la direction mais aussi à faire converger les différentes attentes de chacune des directions. Dans, ce cadre, de manière générale et plus particulièrement dans le cas du projet Verdi, notre action a été décomposée en 4 phases distinctes. La première appelée «Plan qualité» vise à définir la vision stratégique de l organisation ainsi que le dispositif de projet. Cette phase permet la définition des points durs du projet sur lesquels une attention particulière doit être portée. La deuxième dénommée «Programmation» se divise en deux sous-phases : la programmation stratégique et la programmation générale. Ces phases doivent permettre l analyse des attentes de chacun ainsi que la vision et la définition des modes de travail de chacun. Elles sont l occasion d associer les utilisateurs au processus de conception par le biais d un ensemble d outils divers (cartes, représentation graphique, «jigsaw» ). Dans le cas du projet Verdi, par exemple, nous avons organisé, dès la phase amont, des groupes de travail composés des utilisateurs «clés», représentatifs d une situation de travail regroupés autour de thématiques précises technologie, production, administration, conseil, ingénieur, Ces groupes d utilisateurs expriment leurs besoins, leurs attentes et leurs visions de leurs modes de travail futurs. En fait, plus qu un travail de conception uniquement fondée sur les objectifs économiques de l organisation et l étude capacitaire du bâtiment, ce sont les échanges de ces différents groupes d utilisateurs qui vont guider la conception de l espace. 292

84 Parallèlement à l organisation de ces groupes utilisateurs, deux outils sont venus parfaire notre connaissance des attentes et des modes de travail de chacun. Le premier consistait en l envoie d un questionnaire, le plus souvent par courrier électronique, à chacun des utilisateurs concernés. Ce questionnaire vise à appréhender les attentes et les besoins des utilisateurs. Conjointement à l envoi de ce questionnaire, nous avons mis en place une méthode d analyse des différentes situations de travail dans le temps, dénommée Time Utilisation Survey (TUS). Cet outil a pour objectif de définir le temps passé par chacun des utilisateurs à effectuer différentes tâches : concentration, réunion, détente, échange informel, photocopieuse Il permet une analyse fine des modes de travail de chacun. Celle-ci est centrale puisqu elle permet de montrer aux utilisateurs qu ils n utilisent pas toujours l espace comme ils se le représentent. Cette phase de programmation ne consiste donc pas uniquement à traduire la vision des utilisateurs et des principales directions de l organisation sinon quelle valeur apporterons-nous au projet? mais bien à faire coïncider les attentes de chacun avec les éléments de diagnostic et d analyses propres à notre métier d architecte. Il s agit de montrer, de donner à voir, la réalité de l utilisation des espaces et de la confronter à celle des utilisateurs afin d aboutir à une vision de l espace réaliste et acceptée par tous. Notre métier vise ainsi à créer une représentation commune de l espace, partagé par chaque membre de l organisation. Pour se faire, il faut également noter un important travail de communication. En effet, dans le cas du projet Verdi, nous avons assisté le comité de pilotage du projet dans la production de nombreux outils de communication à destination d un large public : utilisateurs d une part, et boards, d autre part. La réalisation de maquettes de présentation, la production d images destinées à être intégrer à une newsletter mensuelle, la participation à la réalisation de forums exposant les principales nouveautés mobiliers sont autant d éléments qui peuvent être recensés parmi nos attributions. A l issu de ces phases amont, les phases de «Space planning» et de «Maîtrise d œuvre d exécution» sont alors exécutés. Pour autant, les missions de communication ne s arrêtent pas là et accompagnent l ensemble du processus de projet. Leur temps d exécution est considérablement raccourci. En effet, il semble que passer plus de temps en phase amont, en prenant soin d accompagner les utilisateurs et de les associer au processus de décision, permet de gagner du temps sur les phases ultérieures et notamment de : mieux cerner les dispositifs de projet, éviter les blocages, les objections des utilisateurs et plus particulièrement des CHSCT et globalement de réduire toutes formes de résistance au changement. Dans ce cadre, les métiers de la conception tendent à porter une attention de plus en plus conséquente aux phases amont et le concepteur-architecte se transforme tantôt en «concepteur-médiateur», tantôt en «concepteur-communicant» se voyant attribuer de nouvelles missions. Ces dernières rarement mises en œuvre auparavant se généralisent progressivement. Pour autant, il convient de souligner que la plupart des maîtres d ouvrage n accorde pas encore la même importance aux phases amont du projet et le résultat s en ressent : ajustement à la marge, manque d adhésion générale au projet, forte résistance au changement sont le lot de la majorité des projets. Cependant, de nouvelles notions émergent petit à petit et tendent à inscrire ces phases de médiation et 293

85 de communication automatiquement dans les processus de conception. C est notamment le cas du projet de la Ville de Paris. Relocalisation des services de la DEVE et de la DPE : l inscription de la Maîtrise d usage au sein du processus de conception architecturale. Désireux de faire du projet de relocalisation des services de la DEVE et de la DPE, une véritable référence dans le domaine de la qualité d usage, la Ville de Paris à inscrit la notion de maîtrise d usage au cœur du processus de conception. Cette notion est un concept mais aussi une démarche qui vise à placer l usage au cœur de tout projet d aménagement et d architecture des lieux de travail et de vie. Elle permet une amélioration continue de la «qualité d usage», c est-à-dire de la «qualité de ce qui est conforme à l usage», au sein des bâtiments. Globalement, il s agit d une démarche préventive qui vise une meilleure adéquation entre l offre architecturale et les besoins des utilisateurs. Dans ce cadre, notre démarche de conception s est vue confortée et enrichie de cet enjeu. En effet, tout comme la qualité environnementale, la qualité d usage se caractérise par la mise en œuvre d une démarche spécifique répondant à des critères particuliers. Ainsi par analogie à la démarche HQE, une démarche HQU (Haute Qualité d Usage) a été définie. Celle-ci est intervenue dès la phase préliminaire du projet. Elle vise à établir en amont un diagnostic architectural et ergonomique en fonction de l analyse des usages de chacun. Les notions d ergonomie, de confort, de bien-être deviennent alors prépondérantes dans le processus de conception. Il s agissait de fixer un niveau de qualité prévue à partir de la définition des exigences d usages de chacun. La démarche HQU exige une analyse des attentes de l ensemble des individus et non plus la définition des usages selon un modèle unique d individu. Parce que la démarche HQU traite des besoins des usagers, les usages réels et leurs traductions dans l espace, elle implique le développement de nouvelles compétences et de phases d études amont plus poussées qui se devaient de prendre en compte la qualité physique : ergonomie, circulation, mobilité facilitée au sein du bâtiment (abords du bâtiment, accès aux services, aux commodités, aux rangements, sortie et évacuation ) ; la qualité sensorielle : son (pollution sonore), visuel, éclairage, ventilation, aération, au-delà des seules considérations esthétiques ;la qualité mentale : repérage facile dans le bâtiment, lisibilité de l espace, facilité d interactions, d échanges, préservation de l intimité, de la confidentialité ;la prévenance : sécurité de l environnement, protection contre les risques divers, mais plus encore création d un sentiment de sécurité, d une ambiance sereine ; ainsi que l adaptabilité : durabilité du bâtiment, flexibilité des espaces à l évolution des usages, pérennité de l environnement. Cette liste de critères non-exhaustive a été complétée selon les besoins spécifiques des collaborateurs définis lors des phases de programmation exposées précédemment. La prise en compte des usages dans toutes leurs caractéristiques, que nous préconisons, tend ainsi à devenir une des prérogatives premières des pratiques de conception. Le contexte semble aujourd hui plus favorable à une appréhension des usages dans toutes leurs dimensions. Les enjeux de confort, d ergonomie, de qualité, de bien-être et surtout 294

86 d usages et de représentations constituent une part croissante des processus de conception. Les entreprises tiennent progressivement compte de ces notions face aux objectifs déjà établis et reconnus aujourd hui comme essentiels que sont la réalisation d économie, la rationalisation, la flexibilité, l efficacité mais aussi l image. Ainsi plus qu un simple travail de conception architecturale, en tant qu œuvre, la conception est aujourd hui saisie par la nécessité de concilier usages et exigences managériales d une manière de plus en plus fine et se prête de plus en plus aux prérogatives de médiation et de communication. Néanmoins, malgré quelques opérations exemplaires en la matière, la prise en compte et la conciliation des usages avec les attentes de la direction sont trop rarement considérées. Rappelons ainsi que les métiers de la conception sont donc avant tout soumis à la vision et à la culture de projet de l organisation et de ses managers. La montée du FM et la perception grandissante des édifices comme moyens de supports de services soulève ainsi une question majeure : la généralisation des processus de FM vont-ils tendre vers l apparition d une culture commune de projet amenant à une prise en compte généralisée des collaborateurs et de leurs usages? Pour nous, la réponse à cette question déterminera, en partie, l avenir des métiers de la conception architecturale. 295

87 Public procurement: rewarding architects for life cycle thinking 8 Jan Bröchner and Josefin Sporrong Chalmers University of Technology Department of Technology Management and Economics SE Göteborg, Sweden In many countries the public sector is an important buyer of architectural services. By using multiple criteria for the award of design contracts, public procurement officials may encourage architectural firms to rely on feedback from the facilities management phase. An analysis of responses to a 2007 survey of more than 80 municipal procurement officials in Sweden reveals the extent to which their choice of architects is influenced by life cycle considerations. Although it is possible that Scandinavian traditions emphasize a long term view of building performance more than in other countries, a similar development can be expected also elsewhere because of growing concern with sustainability issues. INTRODUCTION Why should architects be expected to learn from buildings in use? One of many possible answers to this question is that they might be rewarded for taking an interest in experiences from buildings that they have designed, or from those that other architects have been responsible for. The organization of feedback from the facilities management phase is far from easy, as earlier studies have shown (Bröchner, 1996; Lê and Brønn, 2007), but this difficulty is also a strong reason for identifying the incentives that various professional groups and actors in building projects are subject to. Leaving architectural competitions aside, the issue in focus of this paper is whether architects are awarded contracts because they are believed to be capable to let their work be influenced by knowledge of how facilities are used and of how these facilities age as technical structures. Moreover, we are mostly concerned here with public procurement of architectural services, where there are stricter requirements for objective criteria of choice than when private sector clients choose architects. Within the field of public procurement, we shall concentrate on how Swedish municipalities award contracts for architectural services. In Sweden, there has been no survey of how private sector clients purchase architectural services. However, leading practitioners indicate that large clients in the manufacturing industry have a tradition of looking for an understanding of facilities-in-use when selecting which architectural practices to work with. There is also a feeling that only recently, there has been a growing concern among private clients in general with choosing architects who are capable of seeing facilities in a life cycle perspective and are acquainted with the various aspects of sustainability in the built environment. Since private clients can combine contracts freely for basically the same construction project, 8 Paper for the RAMAU Network Seminar The impact of Facilities Management on design and services organisation and professions, Paris April

88 it might not be necessary that the architectural firm chosen possesses the life cycle competence in-house; it is sufficient that the client expects them to be good at collaborating with other specialists who rely on facilities management knowledge and are able to handle issues of sustainability. Public sector clients in many countries are circumscribed by procurement regulations that concern at least the award of a contract for architectural services over a certain contract sum. In addition to the requirements formulated in the relevant European Directive (2004/18/EC), the Swedish Public Procurement Act regulates also smaller contracts. Within the rules of the earlier Services Directive (92/50/EEC), many Swedish municipalities chose to rely on framework agreements with several architectural firms. It should also be pointed out that Sweden has no fixed hourly fees or percentages of building cost for the pricing of architectural services. For the award of construction contracts, reliance on the economically most advantageous tender rather than lowest price is widespread now in the Swedish municipal sector (Waara and Bröchner, 2006). Selecting architectural services with price as the single criterion for the award of a contract is obviously unwise. There have been studies in Hong Kong (Cheung et al., 2002), Singapore (Ling, 2003) and in the US (Christodoulou et al., 2004) of how architects are selected. However, while these studies analyse how clients rely on a range of non-price criteria, there is insufficient detail for our purpose the problem has mostly to do with what a general quality criterion hides. THE SURVEY For the survey described here, procurement officials were identified in about half of all 290 municipalities in Sweden, chosen randomly. Next, a six-page postal questionnaire was sent in 2007 to these officials; answers were received from 89 out of 130 questionnaires sent, implying a response rate of 68 per cent. Of these, 81 respondents were responsible for procurement of architectural services. The survey constitutes a part of a larger research project that studies municipal procurement of architectural and engineering services, supported by Formas, the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning. Eleven respondents stated that they normally rely on a life-cycle cost (LCC) criterion for procuring architectural services. In Tables 1 and 2, differences between municipalities that do apply a LCC criterion and those who do not are shown. Although there is a link between general policy documents for procurement in a particular municipality and its reliance on LCC criteria in actual procurement practice, the link is weak (Table 1), especially if we consider how a general goal of sustainability fails to be reflected in the choice of criteria. Policy statements that emphasize total economy in procurement appear to be much more easily translated into a practice that evaluates LCC capabilities among architects. 297

89 Table 1 Municipalities applying a LCC criterion to architectural procurement compared with other municipalities General municipal procurement Apply LCC criterion Do not apply LCC criterion policy includes total economy 64% 40% long term thinking 36% 22% sustainability 27% 24% On a five-degree scale, of those procurement officials who consider that procurement of architectural services functions less than very well or well within their own municipality, those who apply a LCC criterion are less prone (average 2.83) to agree with a statement that there is a lack of competence for assessing architectural services. Staff from municipalities who do not rely on a LCC criterion show an average of 3.29 on this five-degree scale. In addition, it should be noted that it is significantly more frequent among procurement officials in municipalities using a LCC criterion to have personal experience of working as an architect or consultant. It seems that the existence of a general procurement policy that prioritizes sustainability and long term thinking in a municipality provides only a partial explanation for local criteria in practical use. An alternative explanation, which does not exclude influence from a common policy, is that local procurement officials hold individual opinions that are mirrored in their procedures for procurement. In Table 2, differences in how officials agree to three relevant statements can be seen. Among municipalities that do not apply a LCC criterion, the average reaction of officials is rather that the public sector slightly exaggerates the issue of sustainability, which is contrast to the almost neutral or slightly affirmative response from those who have put LCC thinking into procurement practice. There is also more of a complacent attitude towards faults in buildings among the non-lcc officials, although we cannot be sure that this does not result from a history of fewer faults in these municipalities; the introduction of a LCC criterion locally could be the consequence of bad experiences with earlier building projects. Finally, there is a question of ambition: how satisfied are procurement officials with current methods for recognizing architectural creativity? It turns out that officials who do not apply a LCC criterion view the possibilities to develop better methods for the measurement of creativity as somewhat lower than their colleagues in LCC applying municipalities do. 298

90 Table 2 Views of procurement officials in municipalities applying a LCC criterion to architectural procurement and of officials in other municipalities [averages on a fivedegree scale, where 1= do not agree, 5= agree fully ] Statement Apply LCC criterion Do not apply LCC criterion The public sector does too little for creating a sustainable Sweden Too many publicly procured buildings suffer from faults It should be possible to find a better method for measuring creativity of architectural services IS SCANDINAVIA DIFFERENT? Do both architects and their clients in Scandinavia differ from their counterparts in other regions? Differences may arise from several causes. One possibility is that the winter climate in cold regions makes people in general more aware of the long term behaviour of buildings, because frost action leads to visible effects and insufficient thermal insulation is revealed through high annual costs of heating a facility. However, we cannot exclude other mechanisms that encourage a concern with using experiences from the facilities management phase. First, there is a tendency to cooperate between specialists (Bröchner et al., 2002) rather than to pursue architecture, structural engineering and mechanical services as widely different disciplines. Secondly, there are Scandinavian remains of early 19 th century Romantic philosophy, notably Schelling, which supports a life cycle view of artefacts in Nature; as transmitted by the Danish philosopher Høffding, who taught Ove Arup (Jones, 2006). Arup s Aims ad Means document from 1969 (reprinted by Addis, 2007, pp. 613 seq.) contains a clear expression of how to look at houses as a totality and of avoiding professional sectarian interests in order to create a total architecture. Today, it is tempting to see a close correspondence between Arup s attitude and the principle of using experiences from facilities management to achieve a sustainable architecture; a similar development can be expected also elsewhere because of growing concern with sustainability issues. CONCLUSIONS The Swedish survey results indicate that we need both an understanding of organizational policies in our case: municipal policy and of individual attitudes, those of local procurement officials, to explain why life cycle knowledge among architects is rewarded or not. Although there has been progress in our theoretical understanding of how clients should procure knowledge intensive business services (Gallouj, 1997), the incentive effects on the strategies of consultants and not least on those who provide architectural services need more emphasis in future research. 299

91 References Addis, B. (2007) Building: 3000 Years of Design Engineering and Construction, London: Phaidon. Bröchner, J. (1996) Feedback from facilities management to design and construction systems issues, in (D.A. Langford and A. Retik, eds) The Organization and Management of Construction: Shaping Theory and Practice, London: E & FN Spon, pp Bröchner, J., Josephson, P.-E. and Kadefors, A. (2002) Swedish construction culture, quality management and collaborative practices, Building Research and Information, Vol. 30, No. 6, pp Cheung, F.K.T., Kuen, J.L.F. and Skitmore, M. (2002) Multi-criteria evaluation model for the selection of architectural consultants, Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 20, No. 7, pp Christodoulou, S., Griffis, F.J., Barrett, L. and Okungbowa, M. (2004) Qualifications- Based Selection of Professional A/E services, Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp Gallouj, C. (1997) Asymmetry of information and the service relationship: selection and evaluation of the service provider, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp Jones, P. (2006) Ove Arup: masterbuilder of the twentieth century. New Haven: Yale University Press. Lê, M.A.T. and Brønn, C. (2007) Linking experience and learning: application to multi-project building environments, Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp Ling, F.Y.Y. (2003) A conceptual model for selection of architects by project managers in Singapore, International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp Waara, F. and Bröchner, J. (2006) Price and nonprice criteria for contractor selection, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 132, No. 8, pp

92 ANNEXES 301

93 Energy efficiency services within the frame of FM s offer Orlando CATARINA / Laboratoire Services, Process, Innovation CSTB Introduction The building industry is a considerable field for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions: the building industry sector, and more broadly the urban environment, seems already to be one of the keys to solve the environmental challenge of a division by 4 of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050» 9. Besides, the increase of the cost of energy lately promoted the emergence of the concept of financing energy efficiency investment by the generated savings, and of the virtuous mechanism of re-investment of energy savings. We suppose that energy stakes will deeply transform building management methods and processes, as well as action modalities of the various interveners and their relationships. New arrangements will emerge, notably energy efficiency services with performance guarantee. They are supported by energy efficiency service providing companies (sociétés de services en efficacité énergétique, SS2E) who, in the same time, widen the field of Facility Management. 1. Articulation between energy efficiency services and FM in the french context The French landscape of energy services is deeply marked by SS2Es who have been developing from services associated to energy equipments since the beginning of the 20 th century. These companies perform a service providing activity which consists in taking charge of the whole operation of air conditioning equipments. As real estate patrimonies and support functions are being externalised, they are now at the core of FM development, are deeply changing, and always more behave as global operators for technical and administrative management, service to buildings and occupants, works and assistance. Thus, SS2Es are following a diversification and integration strategy. One talks always more of Property Facility Managers (PFM) to qualify this new offer. Services to which energy efficiency service providing companies are the most associated are the historical contracts of equipment operation which combine activities of installation control and usual maintenance, energy supply and works. The associated guarantee of result for works and energy renovation actions is related to the contractual payment of energy supply by the same supplier. This guarantee is not only based on the volume of saved energy, but also on the kwh selling price which is part of the contact negotiation. Of course, these operation contracts are not their only economical model. SS2Es also intervene in other situations, like in Facility Management or in partnership contracts, where they 9 Le Grenelle de l Environnement, Septembre 2007, Rapport du groupe 1 «Lutter contre les changements climatiques et maîtriser la demande d énergie», 302

94 take charge of the operation of works while guaranteeing a contractual service quality. It is in fact through operation that a partnership contractor is present until the end of his engagement, and that it is possible to qualify this arrangement as a global contract. Nevertheless, the FM provider is seldom the leader in this kind of arrangement where the building company is generally put forward whereas the building delivery is a much more ephemeral activity. On the other hand, when the aim of a partnership contract is energy renovation, the SS2E then becomes the key actor who can take charge at one and the same time services of design, realisation, and operation of installations, with however some limitations as the SS2E seldom intervenes on the envelope. 2. potential and difficulties of implementation of energy efficiency services FM, whether it is internalised or externalised, aims at conducting and ensuring all support functions which are necessary to the operation of an organisation, and which do not belong to its core activity: services to occupants, services to buildings, out-of-productionpurchases, and so on. This approach is seductive from the point of view of energy efficiency if it is combined with a systemic vision of the building because it then offers opportunities in terms of consistency, of global-cost-approach, and of environmental quality. Furthermore, internalised or externalised FM is often the support for an environmental certification which has a very strong and profitable image with final users. Of course, this evolution opens perspectives for SS2Es to integrate energy efficiency services in a wider FM service which allow considering the control of energy consumptions from a new angle. In fact, this relationship mode brings the service provider nearer to the final user that is the occupant, owner or tenant, through the set of services to occupants. One of the keys to success in reducing the environmental impact of a building is related to the manager s commitment in energy efficiency and to his ability to federate the occupants about this dynamics. By putting the occupant at the centre of his concerns and by ensuring a better usage quality of spaces, FM is then ideally placed to involve them in a motivating way and to influence their behaviour in a positive way. Energy efficiency services with a guarantee of result are leading to a risk sharing between the client and his service provider, and even to a complete transfer to the provider in case of a total guarantee. Now and always more, the aversion for risk pushes users and owners into approaches including a result commitment. They tend to buy performance at first, rather than works or services. However, the bearing of risk is directly related to the service cost. It is then advisable to have the risk devolved on the one who controls it at best in order to optimise profits for each part. Energy efficiency services may come along with a financing of investments by the provider. 303

95 If their principle is easy to perceive, the implementation of such contracts may not be. The difficulty is directly dealing with the contract form and object. We are dealing with a partnership which specifies a result obligations on energy savings which are not measurable. Here, the operator defines or validates the energy saving field, and operates it by implementing appropriate energy efficiency actions which are indeed approved by the client or commissioner. Frequently, the client may observe an asymmetry of information. Here, it is important to highlight the necessity for the client to build up a multidisciplinary project team. In fact, energy performance contract engineering summons up technical, financial and legal skills: therefore the necessity for the commissioner to be endowed with an energy manager multidisciplinary proficiency. Users as well as FM providers tend to privilege solutions offering a minimum risk. This is why they prefer to negotiate shorter contract durations or to emphasize immediate savings and shorter times for return on investment. Now, FM contracts are in fact seldom longer than 5 years. One of the consequences is an arbitrage in favour of easy savings and investments on energy systems offering apparently more attractive return times. When works on the envelope are ignored, a progressive drying up of the fields is then to be feared, compromising the division by 4 of greenhouse gas emission by Now, only a systemic approach of the building combined with a more distant time horizon and with a reflection at the patrimony level allowing the mixing of different solutions of time of return will conciliate the factor 4 and profitability. The benefits of a treatment of the envelope will in fact be better valuated by taking the regulation hardening into account which favour obsolescence, and by integrating the upholding of the patrimonial value in time. It is then advisable to make an energy renovation offer emerge with a result guarantee including envelope, equipment and services. The complexity of implementation of energy efficiency services is an economic, organisational and technological barrier. A lever to reduce the transaction costs is to consider the issue of energy audit. The result guarantee is ensured by a provider only if he himself performs the energy audit on the existing. Thus, each bidding candidate must perform his own audit. This is a quite heavy approach which does not allow the market to be opened because non retained candidates must be paid. Moreover, energy savings must be high enough to cover at one and the same time study expenses, financial costs, investments, monitoring management, included services and the provider s margin. The energy bill threshold, which will determine whether energy efficiency services with a result guarantee are appropriate, varies according to the arrangement complexity, according to the particularities and status of installations and buildings. In some peculiar situations, the annual energy bill must rise above 100 k to consider such an arrangement. Then, it appears that these performance guarantee mechanisms are rather attractive for groups of buildings. Pool approach allows in fact taking advantage of a mass effect by amortisation of management fixed costs on larger properties and by accepting a lower risk 304

96 premium through a better distribution of hazard. Moreover, it is advisable to segment the different markets and to quickly estimate their potential to asses the deployment rate of energy efficiency services. Conclusion Therefore, energy efficiency services integrated to a FM offer are an opportunity to operate the different levers of a factor 4 energy performance (investment, service, behaviour) provided that we adopt a systemic approach of the building and a medium term vision, that we take the upholding of the usage quality of spaces into account, and that we have a reflection at the patrimony level rather than at the building level. This requires new skills or new relays for FM providers. 305

97 Architecture and urban planning: the impact of "facility management" on design and service organisation and professions Claudie Meyer (*) - Antoine Lainé (**) 10 The real estate sector does not defy the obligation of widening and completing its offer. In France, for about ten years, along with the traditional components of skills associated to the building activity (commissioning, prime contracting and building), the real estate offer has been integrating an always significant part of services in the form of facility management. Two simultaneous tendencies contributed to reinforce the FM s role in the real estate decision processes: - the search for professionalisation of this function within the company department for building operation (called in French general services), in order to improve their economic performance, - the real estate professional concern in increasing their client satisfaction by proposing new services about the building, resulting in a real estate product dematerialisation (as far as financing, economical efficiency, or service to occupant are concerned). Within this new real estate environment, the facility management activity induces questions of service continuity and resources reliability for companies. It may significantly impact their result because real estate services are representing 3% (in average) of the company s added value. Born in Anglo-Saxon countries, this management activity consists in offering, monitoring and developing real estate services supplied by thirds to a client company, giving then the opportunity to externalise a costly support-function and to focus on its profession core. Nevertheless, in order the FM to diffuse itself and to be an actual management alternative for real estate patrimonies which departments for building operation are in charge of, this activity must rationalise itself around a well defined frame of approaches, models and tools, i.e. methods. A prerequisite to this work is to evaluate the FM s role within the real estate decision process transformations. More precisely, the evaluation relies: 3. on the one hand, on the analysis of the real estate decision and of the process development by identifying the new place taken by FM, 4. on the other hand, and based on examples, on the identification, within the FM process, of recurrent tasks to be optimised in order to feed the reflection on some rationalisation options. 10 (*) Université Paris Est, S3IS, IFIS Marne-la-Vallée, Maître de conférences en Sciences de Gestion (**)Université Paris Est, S3IS, IFIS Marne-la-Vallée, Maître de conférences associé 306

98 These processes and perspectives are the matter of this reflection stage on the evolution of real estate professions. 1. From the FM emergence within the real estate process decision The real estate decision is a reality the lines of which are difficult to define. It consolidates rationalities of actors, experiences and opportunities within an always particular context. In this way, the real estate decision displays the characteristics of a weakly structured11 and strategic12 decision. The process which leads to it, does not unfold in a uniform way, but essentially relies on information flows which aggregate to reduce the uncertainty. Thus, to identify the place taken the FM and the FMer may seem impossible. FMers are generally representing the real estate decision process by distinguishing two strong moments within a building life cycle: the moment of design and construction which will be called upstream, and the operating time which represents the downstream part of the process. The professional practice is changing and (1) the FMer s participation to upstream time is increasing, (2) unsettling at the same time his performance content during the whole life cycle. The FMer, as future occupant of the building, has ideas on the way he will occupy it, and he always more often wants his opinion to be taken into account. When we consider the importance of exit in the real estate property development process, when we recall the real estate risks faced during the 90s with a tertiary supply without demand, we can easily imagine the benefit of integrating the one who will become the building s user within the real estate decision. Thus, it is legitimate to put forward that the work performed by operators will affect the building s usage, perenniality, and economical efficiency, as well as builders decisions will influence the building s operating modes. Thus, a fourth intervener who must give his advice on the building operation after its construction comes and joins the three traditional participants to the building activity (commissioner, prime contractor and building company). This new actor, who is traditionally present in the operation, gathers the knowledge which durably impacts the building operation. He expresses the concerns of tenants, owners, syndic, and so on, which may improve the performance of any building project provided that they are taken into account since the design stage. 11 SIMON H, «a behavioral model of rational choices», Quarterly Journal of Economics, ANTHONY, R., The Management Control Function,, The Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Trad. fr

99 Everything goes on as if we were becoming aware of the fact that everyday operation of the building was a reciprocal function of its design and its construction, and that it was necessary to integrate this new actor within the process upstream the construction. However, the place taken by this specialist is not taken for granted within the real estate decision team. His questions often generate perturbations upstream of operation problems when trying to influence technical choices. In return, his presence is an opportunity for improving the quality of the future decision by re-dealing the roles in the building activity and by clarifying his intervention within the process. This integration of the FMer within the upstream operations fits into a progressive evolution. It first started with an occupant s intervention at the time of finishing, as if real estate operation would only come down to a cosmetic decision. After that, the FMer was able to intervene a little sooner within the process, at the time of technical choices like, for example, energy choice and production. More recently, he has been intervening in the precise space organisation and in the choice of materials about which he will have to report when issuing an evaluation report on the environmental impact of his activity or a carbon balance of his building on the ground of ecological fiscality. Thus, the evolution of the FMer s participation always more upstream in the decision cycle and on always more important topics leads him to widen his field of action, notably by responding, along with other participants, to the requirements of investment perenniality, to the upholding of its speculative value, as well as to the definition of occupants needs. Services provided by the FMer are also structuring themselves always more upstream the real estate decision. He participates to the acceptance of buildings by checking the building adequacy and the constraints which were fixed to him. After the building operational starting up, FM specialists are in charge of optimising the operation costs for the patrimonies they are intrusted with, of consolidating financial and technical information they acquire to enrich their expertise, and of restoring these data in the engineering process which allows the built patrimony operation to be modified or new experiences to be capitalised. When considering that the specialist in real estate operation is intervening always earlier within the project elaboration, his place still strongly depends on the interest the commissioner takes on him, and his status is not comforted by any text. The fields (the intervention area) on which he is asked to intervene are not systematically comparable, terminology is still fuzzy, standardisation is still stammering, and financial information is still too often heterogeneous and physically dispersed. However, the evidence of a progressive installation of the FM profession within the real estate process time and content gives birth to some anxiety for the other participants to the building activity. Thus, processes may gain to be rationalised. 308

100 2. To the rationalisation of the FM process Some efforts and experiments have been performed by professionals to start to define a clear, coherent, and preferably common (as the surface terminology for example) frame for FM projects in order to allow holders of these projects to be integrated in design and construction teams. Based on these experiments, two recurrent dimensions of FM are appearing which may bring a better legibility and a better rationality to the real estate decision process, and which must be taken into account when elaborating brief specifications for real estate operation with specialised prime contractors. It deals with introducing new content and methodological issues in the FM project elaboration process in order to guarantee the future result of operations: - The social dimension which can be found in the process in the form of a social engineering specification brief. It takes several constraint functions of the real estate project into account: - Producing a service depends on interactions between a client and a provider; it can be qualified as co-production13. The promiscuity between teams belonging to the clients and external service companies must be prepared on the organisational level as much at the operation responsibility level as well as at their coordination level. This issue opens the reflection on personnel management, notably on the way to anticipate cultural mixes and to manage inter-cultural relationships by dialogue, making aware, education, building up exchange groups, or by developing listening capacities. - The specification brief must also take into account the evolutive characteristic of needs of occupants by considering at the same time the obligation to build and operate the building for the occupants, the optimisation of their work environment, but also the evolutions of their demands, even their service requirements which are evolving very quickly (as obviously shown by the modifications of the demand in collective catering). This evolution of demand may be anticipated by having resource to need surveys and a careful and rigorous watch of the real estate occupant s behaviour and requirements. - The intervention of external service-providing companies led by professionals is bringing change for the organisation. Internal teams seldom hold with this intervention because of fear of the unknown, and to preserve their action area; they may express a strong resistance to change and thus jeopardize a good performance of FMer s services. It may modify the frame of work environment and also restrain the collective dynamics by disturbing the intimacy of the relationships the company keeps up with its wage earners and the wage earners keep up with each other. By highlighting these constraints, the FMer initiates a support for change which facilitates the acceptance and the implementation of the 13 DELAUNAY J.C., GADREY J., "Les enjeux de la société de service", Paris, Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques,

101 new service. For example, he may plan communication actions about the new service. - The legal dimension, which can be found in administrative brief specifications, must include contractual aspects which are not very frequent in the French law: - The obligation to open the contract to frequent and sometimes contradictory evolutions according to the commissioner s needs, expressed or not, which implies a great flexibility of application modalities over long periods. The notion of service and of provider s adaptation ability becomes of prime importance in the writing of contract, and gives importance to the provider s ability to anticipate the needs of his commissioner in the building operation process. - The obligation to open the contract to the taking into account of the obsolescence of the building and of its components, as well as of the obsolescence of services with a view to develop or to adapt a better program. - The integration into the contract of methods of performance control in the form of satisfaction surveys which are used as tools to prevent dysfunctions or alert signals in case of a possible degradation of real estate service providing. - The penalties which summon the contract economy and are based on the prejudice dimension. The knowledge of the cost of service providing is then necessary to evaluate dysfunctions. - The establishment of contract operation, the judgement on services, everything that deals with means and results must be made unbiased by commissioning a diagnostic to a third part, generally an expert, independent from the commissioner and of the FMer. This is a new intervener in the building activity who completes the team involved in the real estate decision. The aggregated here above examples build up the FMer s view. They complete the key documents which underpin the real estate processes in order to improve their quality. Nevertheless, these complementary social and legal dimensions which integrate the FM dimension into the building activity, are still embryonary from the methodological point of view. Many specialists are still groping when it comes to formalise a common approach to include FM within the real estate project. To be convinced of that, it is enough to count the number of possible contracting schemes within PPPs14. Nevertheless, the integration of service activities within the building activity will have had the advantage of exporting to the world of Building and Public Works and of sharing between all actors the capitalisation methods dealing with know-how evolution and the techniques of satisfaction survey, of introducing tools for the support of change, and of opening the profession to a management which takes Time into account, not 14 PPP = Public Private Partnership 310

102 only as a constraint (duration of building site, financing cost), but also as an enrichment (through experiences) and data to be optimised (building life). A track for opening and professionalisation could be found in benchmarking these practices with Anglo-Saxon practices or with other activity fields which are also deeply changing with the rise of service activities, as for example in the information technology sector. 311

103 PPP, a contractual approach to global cost design Dominique Liffran Real estate patrimony delegate, CEMAGREF Global cost and public construction The public commissioning client s statement of an objective of taking building global cost into account since the design stage is not a recent one. Nevertheless, this objective has never been completely achieved. If the public person s ability to have a long term vision on the operational level is unquestionable moreover, he may anticipate future needs in the concrete, it s not the same as far as costs are concerned. There are plenty of examples in which maintainability or operation costs have been neglected Structurally, the distinction between, on the one hand, investment and operation budgets and, on the other hand, the annualisation of these last ones 15 is the less a favourable factor to a global reasoning as it is translated into organisation charts. Then, the one who holds the global responsibility is at such a high level that he is seldom incited to arbitrate on the global cost issue. Besides, the feeling of a long term financial responsibility is culturally not much present, electoral terms being partly a justification. One of the consequences is a weak influence of operation issues during the design stage, global cost assessment being performed (when they are) at a very theoretical level. Moreover, they are the most often externalised without any usable internal data base, nor any foreseen information feedback. Besides, functional performance to be reached in terms of operation is too often too little specified for its objective cost to be assessed. In front of this fact, PPP as an intrinsically integrating modality can be an answer. As a matter of fact, in a partnership contract, the public person will face a single interlocutor whom he will entrust for a long duration with the providing of the real estate infrastructure needed for the foreseen activity. It s not only a matter of construction any more The approach is completely different. Globalisation of costs over time is set as a contractual principle since the program stage; this cost, because it s not a more or less reliable assessment any more but a contractual commitment, is decisive for the project choice. Consecutively, there is, on the private partner side, an actual solidarity from the origin of the project between the financer, the designer, the constructor and the operator. Without it, there is no competitive offer, and therefore no project. We are dealing here with a radically different approach to the public real estate commission where usage overtakes the object. 15 Most certainly questioned again by the LOLF (Loi organique relative aux lois de finances, Organic Law related to appropriation bill), but yet too recently to have already modified behaviours of deciders. 312

104 This new modality makes up a model of assessment of impact of operation issues on design, and allows a different approach of the project determinants. On the one hand, its contractual translation obviously imposes on the public person a reflection which must be deepened as it never has been on the expected usages of the building. On the other hand, the central position of financial issues, globally taken into account since initial design and, afterwards, during building operation, can be analysed, not only as a limitative factor but as functional performance factor. Levers of global cost optimisation in the partnership contractual expression Public contracts have generally limited durations (except for DSPs, Delegations of Public Service) that which allows a fuzzy margin in the contractual corpus because later adjustment possibilities are important, either by additional clause, or by complementary order to a third, or on the occasion of market renewal. In case of PPP, things are different as the high complexity of the contract makes it is not much easy to handle by nature. Thus, the contractual structure design is crucial as well for the operational benefit of the building usage as for the economical efficiency, not only during the two or three decades of the contract but during the one following its end. This imposes the respect of some cardinal rules: The sharing of risks: First of all, the sharing of risks must be made without any concession, based on a principle according to which the operational as well as economical efficiency will be maximised if the best able part to do it takes completely charge of risks: therefore, there must be a massive transfer of these risks to the private partner. Performance expression of requirements: Then, in order this risk transfer to be effective on the technical level there must be a completely functional definition of result objectives, assessable beyond all questions and without any limitation of the partner s autonomy for the definition of the required means. Based on the principle according to which only what is specified in the contract can be reasonably expected over time, this definition will be very precise. Such a performance-based approach will be performed at the same level for the delivery stage, the operation stage and the property transfer stage. As a matter of fact, as the notion of global cost is not understood over a duration limited to the contract duration, the requirements of value upholding must be clearly specified. Economical levers: Finally, at the economical level, means will be available not only because they fulfil a contractual requirement, but because the partner s economical interest is to implement them. This implies a systematic penalisation in case of under-performance, at a level which is significantly higher than the cost of the aimed performance, and in such a manner that the cumulative costs could jeopardise the private partner s profitability. 313

105 A rigorous performance control mechanism must also be foreseen. It must be defined for each aimed performance; it must be realistic as far as means to be implemented by the public person are concerned. We all know markets containing absolutely welladvised but little credible requirements either because control modalities have not been included in the contract, or because the public person does not have the budgetary or human resources to ensure their control. The actors The public person commissioner: Within the traditional scheme, the public person is taking upon himself sequentially and iteratively over the building life the responsibilities of usage definition, commissioning, designing, building, maintenance, operation and use of the public works. Because at one and the same time of inappropriate budgetary means, insufficiently precise programs and imperfect realisation, optimisation is difficult, but it is admitted because the indulgence of the public person building user to the public person commissioner is important. The public person user: The introduction of a private partner deeply modifies this balance and imposes to the public person a completely different attitude because his creativity does not have any operating expression any more after signature of the contract. He must think about and actually anticipate future needs, and take up the role of the client (in almost the hotelier sense) of the building to be built. The usage definition and the permanence of its availability become the main concern, whereas that of the building is pushed into the background: it will be the matter of the private partner. The public person has hardly any choice because, over the contract duration, he will not be the owner of the building and his rights on it will be strictly limited to what is foreseen in the contract. From being a maître d ouvrage (commissioner), the public person becomes a maître d usage (usage commissioning), an expression to be accepted. Far from being a role reduction or altering his public mission, on the contrary, it allows him to concentrate on it and not on real estate means any more. This is an important cultural change as what we call construction departments are in fact engineer departments who are more used to define technical means than to characterise purely functional result objectives. A contractual change of attitude: The difficulty also comes from the contractual change of attitude. From the beginning of studies until the end of works, and then during the operation stage, the commissioner can be contented with imperfect or limited contractual tools: the taking of risk is not very important, and additional clauses, complementary or new markets will allow, in spite of all, the operational result to be obtained. The limited duration of contracts allows indeed many adjustments. Now, in the case of partnership contract, the situation is much different. It is essential that the partner s engagement brings on the whole set of foreseen services, without any 314

106 omission, and that this engagement is respected (i.e. to have foreseen means for that). As, in the opposite, there will be no compensation solution: supplies will not be available as they will be already engaged on the partnership contract. On the partner s side, the question is symmetrical: the long duration of the contract imposes on him a great carefulness; he will not be able to durably get out of the contract requirements or interpret them to his own advantage; the financial consequence could be disastrous. The contractual interlocutor of the public person within the consortium The expression private partner designates neither the architect, nor the leading building and construction company involved in the project, nor the company in charge of FM: most certainly, they will permanently intervene during the contract negotiation and its development, but they are not those who actually have the power. As a matter of fact, the contract is not signed with any of them but with an ad hoc company, or project company, called SPV, special purpose vehicle. This expression is rather barbaric and we prefer to talk about a project company ; it designates nothing else but a financial instrument. The choice of having the project financed by the private sector implies that financing is based on the project profitability and, very much marginally, on the financial capacities of the consortium companies which, in this way, are running a limited risk. Financial mechanisms and risk management Thus, there is a massive recourse to the financial market. As the realisation value of assets could not allow lenders to refund themselves, they, these are the bankers, will position themselves in an almost operational situation beside the SPV managers in such a way that the concretisation of risks which are inherent in the project and assigned to each of the interveners, will never question the project profitability, therefore the debt recovery. While the contract is running, the interest of consortium companies for operational performance will fade: beyond the year of perfect achievement, architect and constructor have ended their mission; afterwards, the relay is then taken until the end by the company in charge of FM. But this is theoretical as, once its investment in the project has produced its profit, it could disappear without having taken upon itself its long term obligations in terms of GER (Gros entretien renouvellement, structural maintenance and renovation). But if until the end of the contract, the debt reimbursement can be affected by the operational performance, the banker will then make sure that the operational performance is guaranteed during the whole contract. Since the design stage, he will therefore be careful that the intrinsic quality of the building fulfils this requirement, and therefore that the FM company s technical needs are actually taken into account in the project, and then, that this company assumes its responsibility. Its interest is clearly to optimise the global cost. The debt service, a driving role in the project quality and its optimisation in global cost: Thus, the actual client of the consortium companies is the debt service. The debt is therefore the actual provider of the public person. Is it for all that a reduction or a 315

107 sacrifice to have a building quality and functionality coming down to a strictly financial dimension? No, because the notion of global cost, the optimisation of which is an objective ratified by all, and which does not neglect qualitative and functional requirements, is actually a matter of cost. In any case, this cost must be financed by the public person day by day by drawing in his budgetary resources, or in a smoothed manner by resorting to the financial market. For all that, there is neither an ultraliberal profession of faith, nor a naïve confidence in the quality of financial mechanisms. On the contrary, a partnership contract must be extremely precise in terms of requirements, with no margin of evaluation as far as the result to be obtained is concerned, and with leaving to the partner only the freedom of means. This is a functional exacerbate approach to the action of building in which the architectural dimension may take its whole space, provided that appropriate contractual precautions are taken. 316

108 Architectural design: between management requirements and usages Philippe Meurice, DEGW, Paris The increasing importance given to patrimony management and to real estate services, illustrated by the growing development of the still fuzzy notion of Facilities Management (FM), has modified and keeps on modifying the architectural design context and practice. As a matter of fact, the rising of services, the always more important attention given to users, but also the new economical stakes related to space planning are tending to redistribute the positions and roles of the design actors. As a designer architect and space planner, we have noticed that our prerogatives have been modified in time and that our approach has been comforted for a preponderant taking into account of the notions of services and usages over the pure design. Nevertheless, this distinction is not completely new for us. As a matter of fact, we have been building our approach of design on the base of a taking of usages and of the deriving work situations into account. Thus, our approach compares more with a work of spatial translation of employees vision rather than with a mission of pure design. At the time when the notions of services, of quality, of usage, of comfort, of well-being, but also of image and brand prevail and are leading design processes, our design process is indeed comforted. Workspace wants to be the catalyst of the vision of each of its users. This approach of architectural design assigns to architecture agencies like ours a major prerogative: the mediation between management requirements and usages. As a matter of fact, because of the rising of services, the architectural design process becomes an actual transcription, on the one hand, of the company project which is oriented by the notions of rationalisation of costs and of economy, and, on the other hand, of expectations of users. The object of this contribution will then be to show how this mediation mission is in keeping with the architectural design process. For this purpose, we will base ourselves on two concrete examples which illustrate the more and more important weight of this mediation within our missions: the fittings of the new Philips France headquarters in Suresnes, called Verdi project, and the re-fittings of an office building intended to house services of the city of Paris, avenue de France in the ZAC Rive Gauche area. The first one will illustrate the taking of user needs into account and their necessary involvement of these users in the design process since the early stage of the project. The second one will give evidence of this preponderance which is emerging in public markets of the notions of quality of usage confirmed by the emerging notions of maîtrise d usage (usage commissioning) and High Quality Usage. Involving users since the early stage of the project: tools and methods implemented within the Philips Verdi project The aim of the project is to regroup in summer employees coming from different sites of the company on a vast m² plot within the heart of Suresnes, equipped with m² of offices, m² of which consecrated to the group headquarters. Among the project constraints: the achievement of a 300 millions euros saving plan over 5 years, the rationalisation of the real estate portfolio, the standardisation of facilities management processes, and the implementation of the innovative workplace, i.e. a change from 10 to 80% of open space, from 26 to 15 m2 of primary work surface, and a one-for-one office ratio with an occupation rate of 1,2 person per workstation. Here, savings were the project primary motivation. Thus, stakes imposed to the project responsible person but also to our team were: how to have the change accepted and how to 317

109 conciliate company vision and user expectations? Aware of these stakes, we have proposed to Philips to perform a support-to-change mission before our space planning mission. The objective of this mission was to involve the users as well as the managers of each Philips France department in the programming and design process. In order to do so, a large work of mediation and as well communication has been performed. Its main objective was to involve the users upstream the project, and therefore to avoid any blocking or contestation during the following project stages. Within this frame, we have recorded needs and expectations of all users, and we confronted them with the objectives defined by the management. The matter of these upstream project stages, which we call Quality plan and Programming, consisted not only to make the users and management visions converge, but also to make the different expectations of each department management converge. Within this frame, generally and more particularly in the case of the Verdi project, our action has been broken up into 4 distinct stages. The first one, called Quality plan, aims at the definition of the organisation s strategic vision and of the project arrangement. This stage allows the project hard points to be defined on which a particular attention must be paid. The second one, called Programming is divided into two sub-stages: strategic programming and general programming. These stages must allow the analysis of each one s expectations as well as the vision and the definition of each one s working modes. These stages are the opportunity to associate the users to the design process by means of a set of different tools (maps, charts, jigsaw ). In the case of the Verdi project, for example, we have organised, from the upstream stage, work groups made up of key users, representative of a work situation, gathered on precise themes: technology, production, administration, consultancy, engineering, and so on. These user groups express their needs, their expectations and their visions for their future working modes. In fact, more than a design work based on the organisation economical objectives and on a building capacity study, the exchanges within these different user groups will actually guide the space design. Concurrently to the organisation of these user groups, two tools completed our knowledge of each one s expectations and working modes. The first one was based on sending a questionnaire, the most frequently by , to each of the concerned users. The objective of this questionnaire is to perceive expectations and needs of the users. In conjunction with the sending of this questionnaire, we implemented a method of analysis of the different work situations in time, called Time Utilisation Survey (TUS). The objective of this tool is to define the time spent by each user to perform different tasks: concentration, meeting, relaxing, informal exchange, photocopying, and so on. It allows a precise analysis of each one s working modes. This analysis is crucial as it allows showing to users that they do not always use the space as they imagine they do. This programming stage does not only lie in translating the vision of the users and of the main organisation managements otherwise, what would be the value of what we bring to the project?, but indeed to make everybody s expectations coincide with diagnostic and analysis items which are peculiar to our profession of architect. The point is to show, to display the reality of space utilisation and to confront it with that of users in order to converge on a vision of space which is realistic and admitted by all. Thus, our profession aims at creating a common representation of space, shared by every member of the organisation. In order to get there, an important communication work must be highlighted. In fact, in the Verdi project, we have supported the project management committee in the production of many communication tools addressed to a large public: users on the one hand, and management boards on the other hand. The production of presentation lay-outs and of images to be included in a monthly newsletter, and the participation to the organisation of forums exhibiting the main furniture novelties, and so on, are as many aspects which can be considered as part of our competence. 318

110 The Space planning and Construction realisation ( Maîtrise d oeuvre d exécution ) are then performed after these upstream stages. Communication missions are not over for all that and are supporting the whole project process. Their execution duration is dramatically reduced. As a matter of fact, it seems that spending more time on the upstream stage, taking care of accompanying users and associating them with the decision process, allows gaining time on the subsequent stages and notably: a better definition of the project arrangements, avoiding the blockings and objections of the users and more particularly of the CHSCT (Comité d'hygiène, de sécurité et des conditions de travail; Committee of hygiene, security and working conditions), and, in the aggregate, reducing any form of resistance to change. Within this frame, professions of design tend to pay an always more consistent attention to upstream stages and the designer-architect turns at one time into a mediator-designer, at another time into a communicating-designer, and is then assigned with new missions. These missions, who were previously seldom performed, are now becoming general. Nevertheless, it is advisable to emphasize that most of the clients do not grant the same importance to the project upstream stages yet, and the result will then be affected: adjustment at the margin level, lack of general adhesion to the project, strong resistance to change are the share of a majority of projects. In the meanwhile and little by little, new notions are emerging and are tending to automatically fit these mediation and communication stages into the design processes. This is notably the case for the Paris city project. Relocating of the DEVE s and DPE s services: the fitting of the Usage commissioning into the architectural design process Willing the DEVE s and DPE s services relocating project to be an actual reference in the field of usage quality, the City of Paris has engraved the notion of usage commissioning (maîtrise d usage) at the core of the design process. This notion is a concept but as well an approach which aims to position the user at the core of any workplace and life space planning and architecture project. It allows a continuous improvement of the usage quality, that is of the quality of what is in compliance with usage in the buildings. In the aggregate, it is a preventive approach which aims at a better adequacy between architectural offer and users needs. Within this frame, our design approach has been comforted and enriched by this stake. As a matter of fact, just like the environmental quality, the usage quality is characterised by the implementation of a specific approach which responds to particular criteria. Thus, by analogy with the HQE (Haute Qualité Environnementale, High environmental quality) approach, an HQU (Haute Qualité d Usage, High Quality of Usage) has been defined. It intervened from the project preliminary stage. It aims at establishing an upstream architectural and ergonomic diagnostic based on the analysis of each one s usage. The notions of ergonomics, of comfort, of well-being are then becoming preponderant within the design process. It was dealing with the definition of a foreseen quality level from the definition of each one s usage requirements. The HQU approach requires an analysis of expectations of all the individuals, and not the definition of usages according to a single model of individual. Because the HQU approach is dealing with users needs, actual usages and their translations in space, it implies the development of new abilities and of more deepened upstream study stages which had to take the physical quality into account: ergonomics, circulation, easier mobility within the building (building accesses, access to services, to lavatories and to storages, exit and evacuation, and so on); the sensorial quality: acoustics (sound pollution), visual, lightning, ventilation, airing, beyond the only esthetical considerations ; the mental quality: easy locating in the building, space legibility, ease of interactions and exchanges, preservation of intimacy and of confidentiality; the attention: safety of the environment, protection against various risks, but even more, creation of a feeling of security, a serene atmosphere; as well as the adaptability: building durability, space flexibility for usage evolution, environment 319

111 perenniality. This non-exhaustive list of criteria has been completed according to specific need of collaborators defined during the previously described programming stages. The taking of usages into account with all their characteristics, that which we recommend, now tends to become one of the primary prerogatives of the design practices. Today, the context seems favourable to an approach of usages in all their dimensions. The stakes of comfort, ergonomics, quality, welll-being, and above all, usages and representations are forming a growing part of the design processes. Companies are progressively taking these notions into account in front of already established objectives which are now admitted as essential, like saving achievement, rationalisation, flexibility, efficiency, but also image. Therefore, design, being more than a simple architectural design work, is now faced with the necessity of conciliating usages and management requirements with an always more subtle manner, and always more lends itself to mediation and communication prerogatives. None the less, despite some exemplar operations in these matters, the taking into account and the conciliation of usages with the management expectations are too seldom considered. Let us now recall that professions of design are first of all bound to the vision and the culture of project of the organisation and of its managers. The rising of FM and the growing perception of buildings as means of support of services are raising a major question: will the generalisation of FM processes tend towards the emergence of a common project culture leading to a generalised taking of employees demands and of their usages into account? For us, the answer to this question will partly determine the future of the professions of architectural design. 320